Essays

The word 'psychology' comes from the Greek 'psyche' (or soul) and 'logos' (or study), which came to be known as the 'study of the soul'. Scientific study is a valid way of coming to an understanding of life, and can be very useful in every area of life. Science develops theories based on what is observed. It examines each theory with rigorous and scrupulous tests to see if it describes reality. The scientific method works well in observing and recording physical data and in reaching conclusions which either confirm or nullify a theory. During the mid-19th century, scholars (although at that time probably termed philosophers) wanted to study human nature with the aim of applying the scientific method to observe, record, and treat human behaviour that was deemed as unnatural. They believed that if people could be studied in a scientific manner, there would be a greater accuracy in understanding present behaviour, in predicting future behaviour, and, most controversially, in altering behaviour through scientific intervention.

Social psychology is concerned with the effects of social situations on human behaviour. Comparative psychologists study animal behaviours across the range of species. Physiological psychologists are concerned with the biological basis of behaviour. Developmental psychologists study principles and processes, responsible for change throughout life. Cognitive psychologists investigate memory, thought, problem solving and the psychological aspects of learning. Analysis of behaviour studies the conditions under which a behaviour can be learned and the situations that cause that behaviour to occur. Learning is an area of psychology exploring how new behaviours are learned and maintained.

Clinical psychologists study ways to help individuals and groups of individuals change their behaviour. Industrial and organizational psychologists are concerned with the physical and social aspects of people's work environments as they affect work output. Community psychologists use scientific methods to study and solve social problems.

The psychodynamic perspective believes that behaviour is result of unconscious processes, personal motivation and early childhood experiences. Its most famous advocate was Sigmund Freud. Its method of data collection relies heavily tin interpreting discussion, dreams and fantasies, actions, case studies and a limited amount of experimentation.

The behaviorist perspective believes that behaviour is learned and selected by environmental consequences. Its method of data collection relies heavily on experimentation conducted in the scientific laboratory where the factors studied can be controlled; or it may take place in a real life setting where more natural behaviour is studied and far

more variables exist.

The cognitive perspective believes that behaviour is a result of information processing, storage in the brain, transformation and the retrieval of information. The methods of data collection used are again experimentation but with much use of computer modeling.

The evolutionary perspective believes that psychological processes echo the evolutionary processes of natural selection. Its method of data collection includes the deduction of explanations for behaviour, and comparisons between species and cultures. It also involves a limited amount of experimentation.

Of these four perspectives all lend common similarities to the traditional sciences. All have elements of controlled experimentation, as does physics or chemistry. Cognitive perspectives use computer modeling, as does mathematics.

There are similarities, but there are also differences to any other sciences, such as the study of dreams and fantasies.

The methods of experimentation and research in psychology are completed on a scientific basis. Psychological experimental research would involve the manipulation of a situation to examine the way in which the subjects of an experiment react, in order to observe cause and effect. The experimenter manipulates independent variables and the subjects' responses would prove the dependant variables. By measuring the subjects' responses, the experimenter can tell if the manipulation has had an effect- Psychological hypotheses are sought to operationalised to turn an abstract concept into a concrete argument. This process is scientific in its element. The hypothesis is framed, variables are operationalised separately, a standard procedure is developed that is maintained throughout the experiment, subjects are scientifically selected, results are tested and conclusions drawn.

A scientific subject knows its own limitations. Psychology attempts to study complex phenomena in laboratory and field situations where validity is called into question. Every psychological experiment and theory is evaluated with the same level of criticality as that of the traditional sciences.

Questions are asked over the theoretical framework, the results validity and its relationship with the hypothesis, the quality and range of sample and if it is representative, the conclusions that can be drawn form the data and broader conclusions that may be apparent. Finally, the studies are questioned on their meanings and ethics to operationalise the original hypothesis.

Psychology has adopted the scientific mode. However, from a strictly scientific point of view, it has not been able to meet the requirements of true science. The truth is that psychological statements which describe human behaviour or which report results from tested research can be scientific. However. when there is a move from describing human behaviour to explaining it there is also a move from science to opinion.

Here, it is important to make the distinction between psychology and psychiatry. But not the basic idea of understanding and describing human functioning within a scientific context.

Psychotherapy, on the other hand, is no more a science than that of civil engineering. Ideally, scientifically investigated therapeutic techniques and methods are used together with ethical and philosophical principles in order to achieve a desired outcome. Psychotherapy, then, is a mixture of a craft and an art and may not be called a science.

Remembering that psychology is the scientific study of the behaviour of humans and animals, we should look at their methods of study. As we have seen, psychologists use scientific methods in an attempt to understand and predict behaviour, to develop procedures for changing behaviour, and to evaluate treatment strategies.

If we can define a science using subjective methods then Psychology is definitely a science. Psychology represents an empirical science, its methods demanding empirical testing of hypotheses.

Many empirical results of psychology are subject to personal interpretation and intense dispute. This can be seen as a function of the phenomena that is psychology. But the key to resolving these disputes is to turn back to the empirical methods and pit alternative interpretations against each other.