11th Class

Exceptions are inherent in biology due to evolutionary divergence. Not only living organisms, but viruses and biomolecules also exhibit exceptional forms. A student of biology must be prepared to accept and enjoy this gesture of nature. Some exceptions have been explained logically, while for others, the reasons are yet to be searched out. Following are noteworthy exceptions in zoology, (1) Mammals are usually terrestrial, fossorial or arboreal but bat is only flying and whale and seals are aquatic mammals. (2) Mature mammalian RBCs are devoid of nucleus except camel. (3) The aquatic larval stage of some salamanders like Ambystoma is able to reproduce (paedogenesis) and attain sexual maturity. It is called neoteny. Total neoteny is found in Necturus, Siren and Proteus. (4) Heart is three chambered in reptiles but four chambered in crocodiles. It is two chambered in fishes but three chambered in lung fishes like Protopterus which possess lung-like more...

Some interrelated disciplines of biology (career options in biology) from which any field can be selected for further rewarding career. (1) Virology : It is the study of viruses. (2) Agronomy : This branch deals with the management of farms and is the science of crop production. (3) Pathology : It is the study of diseases (their nature, causes, symptoms, effects and control). (4) Breeding : This branch is concerned with the production of new improved races by mating selected parents. (5) Entomology : It is the study of structure, habits and classification of insects. (6) Anthropology : It is the study of physical, cultural, mental and social nature of primitive and modern man. (7) Veterinary science : It deals with the study of domestic animals. (8) Ichthyology or Fishery or Pisciculture : It deals with the study of rearing fish. (9) Apiculture : It deals with the study of more...

460-377 Hippocrates : Used the plants in medicine (Father of B.C. medicine). 384-322 Aristotle : Initiated study of biology  (Father of biology). B.C. 370-285 Theophrastus  : Described 480 kinds of plants in 'Historia B.C.       Plantarum' (Father of botany) and writer of 'cause of plants'. 1590      Invention of the first microscope by Jenssen  and Zacharis Jenssen                                      1665      Discovery of the cellular structure (cells) in cork : Robert Hooke described in book 'Micrographia'.    1675      Anatomia Plantarum : Book by Marcello Malpighi. 1683      Initial separation of bacteria : Antony Von Leeuwenhoek (of Holland) 'animalcules' named.              1694      Malpighi illustrated stomata and parenchyma. 1694      Camerarius described sexual reproduction of plants and importance of pollination.                            1727      Stephan Hales discovered idea of manufacture of food by green plants in sunlight. Father of plant physiology. 1753      Species Plantarum and Genera Plantarum books (Linnaeus) Carl Van Linnae. Systema Naturae, Binomial more...

Father of Zoology and Biology and Founder of Embryology  :  Aristotle Father of Botany : Theophrastus Father of Genetics : G.J. Mendel Father of Evolutionary ideas  : Empedocles Father of Eugenics : Francis Galton Father of Mutation : Hugo de Vries Father of Modern Embryology : Karl Ernst Von Baer Father of Palaeontology : Leonardo da vinci Father of Taxonomy : Carolus Linnaeus Father of Special Creation Theory : Father Saurez Father of  Blood groups : K.Landsteiner Father of Blood circulation  : William Harvey Father of Comparative Anatomy : G. Cuvier Father of Modern Genetics  : T. H. Morgan Father of Medicine : Hippocrates Father of Microbiology : Louis Pasteur Father of Immunology : Edward Jenner

Two Ashwini Kumars has been said to be practising medicine during Vedic times. Dhanwantri has been called as 'God of medicine'. Susruta has been called as 'Father of surgery'. Few important references are, (1) Susruta studied human anatomy on dead bodies. (2) Susruta carried plastic surgery on human nose (rhinoplasty). (3) Ophthalmic surgery : Susruta carried an eye surgery like extraction of cataracts. (4) Clotting of blood : Susruta used non-poisonous live leeches for checking clotting of blood in post operative conditions. Now its clearly established that heparin is released along saliva of leeches to produces this kind of effect. (5) Charaka Samhita (100 B.C.) : It is said to be primarily written by Agnivasa under the guidance of Atreya (600 B.C.). Charaka was first to discuss the concepts of digestion, Metabolism and immunity. (6) Taittiriya Upanishad (7–8 B.C.) : In this significant observations have been made about the process more...

A scientist link patterns or draws relationship among a number of isolated facts. Scientist is responsible for determining the principles from the observations on specific cases and finally discovers general principles. Scientists adopt scientific methods based on the following pattern -    

(1) Amniocentesis : However, these days, the amniocentesis is being misused also. Mothers even get their normal foetus aborted if it is a female. This is just equivalent to killing of a normal child. So Govt. of India enforced the Pre-natal Diagnostic Techniques (Regulation and Prevention of Misuse) Act, 1994 since January 1, 1994 under which all genetic counselling centres and laboratories are required to apply for registration. So this technique has been banned in some states like Maharashtra and is under consideration in other states. (2) Bioterrorism : Now a days bio-techniques are being widely used for preparation of bioweapons like antibiotic resistant  micro-organisms. Spores of Bacillus anthracis (cause of anthrax) are produced in biology research labs and stored for decades. Their release may cause anthrax and become the cause of bioterrorism. Such release of antibiotic resistant strains cause communicable diseases like anthrax and plague on endemic or epidemic more...

Scientific investigations may be basic or applied. Inventions of new technology extend new hopes and open avenues for the work and research which was not possible earlier. Discovery of radioactive isotopes enabled tracing metabolic pathways, development of microscope and then electron microscope provided useful tools to study biology. X-ray crystallography helped in the study of the structure of DNA, protein and many other biomolecules. Biotechnology and genetic engineering are fruitful due to accumulation of knowledge from different sources. It is note worthy that while information gathered from basic researches enriched the field of applied researches, the fruits of applied researches contribute to explore and widen the area of basic researches.

Biology creates an awareness of vast array of forms of life which normally goes unseen. Biology offers a large scope and provides a large field for study. (1) Helps us to understand ourselves better : It unfolds different queries of life alongwith its cultural, social, philosophical and economical aspects. So it helps in understanding the life better. (2) Biology and inter-relationship of living beings : Study of biology helps us in understanding the wonderful phenomenon and laws of nature which finally tell us to predict the behaviour of different living beings under changed conditions. (3) Biology and resources : Biology helps us to know how to tap and conserve the resources available to us e.g. fishes, birds, forests etc. (4) Biology and literature : Knowledge of Natural Biology has greatly enriched the literature with their references in stories and poems etc. Poets and other authors have been inspired by the more...

(1) Serendipity is associated with scientific method and it refers to discoveries made unexpectedly or by chance. (2) The term 'serendipity' was coined to Horace Walpole in 1754 from the title of the fairy-tale. 'The Three Princes of Serendip (a former name for Sri Lanka)', whose heroes were always making discoveries by accidents and sagacity. (3) Louis Pasteur said that "chance favours the trained mind". because an inquisitive, enthusiastic and intuitive mind may perceive the desired direction for a discovery. (4) In 1922 while Alexander Fleming, the British bacteriologist has a cold, allowed few drops of his nasal mucus to fall on a bacterial culture. (5) Fleming was excited to find sometime later that the mucus could dissolve away the bacteria and the enzyme lysozyme which dissolves bacterial cells could be discovered. (6) One of the best known antibiotics, penicillin, was discovered by Fleming in 1928 as a result of more...