Current Affairs 7th Class

Notes - Architecture as Power

Architecture as Power The Taj Mahal is a famous monument and is one of the seven wonders of the world. It is undoubtedly, he finest example of Mughal Architecture. There are many other spectacular monuments like, Lal Quila, Sun temple, Meenakshi temple and monuments of Sikri that were built during the medieval period. These monuments are manifestations of composite form of art and architecture developed as a result of the assimilation of diverse cultures. Have you ever visited Qutb Minar? It is a tall and appealing monument built during the medieval period by Qutb-ud-din Aybak. It stands adjacent to the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque. It is unique in many ways. Its great height is enhanced by its tapering structure. The balconies have been skillfully projected. The use of ribbed and angular projections and the red and white sandstones add further to its beauty. The verses from the holy Quran are carved on sandstone walls of Qutb Minar. This monument served the purpose of calling people for prayer in the mosque. The foundation of Qutb Minar was laid by Qutb-ud-din Aybak but its construction was completed by his successor Iltutmish in 1230 AD.

Inscriptions and balcony of Qutb Minar India is a treasure house of architectural art. Though architecture has flourished in India through many centuries/ it was during the medieval period that architecture was at its zenith. There was immense impact of foreign style of architecture during this period. Both the Delhi Sultans and the Mughals brought in different styles of architecture. Thus, the medieval period witnessed a wide variety of architecture. Some of them were indigenous and some were the contributions of foreign invasions. INDIAN ARCHITECTURE IN THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD Many monuments were built during this period. Rulers spent enormous money on construction. Temple building was regarded as a sacred duty of the rich and kings. Temple building was sponsored because it was a pious act bringing religious merit. The Muslim invaders built mosques to show their power, wealth and victories. The buildings built by the Mughals impart a sense of ruler power and were a potent symbol of authority. The Mughal wealth is reflected in the opulence of their architecture. The buildings made by Shah Jahan are lavish and display the superb wealth and status of the Mughal emperor. Tombs were built by emperors in an effort to be remembered. Forts were built as safeguards from invasions and were also a measure of the ruler's strength. The monuments are important sources of information about the medieval period. They give information about the religious beliefs of more...

Catgeory: 7th Class

Notes - The Mughal Empire

The Mughal Empire The Mughal dynasty established a grand empire in India. It was a glorious period of the Indian history. This dynasty unified and ruled India for more than 300 years. 'Mughal's the Persian name for the 'Mongols? The Mughal dynasty produced a rare sequence of competent rulers. The dynasty was noteworthy for its effective rule over much of India, for its administrative organization and for the ability of its rulers who maintained a record of unusual talent, through seven generations. Another merit was the attempt of the Mughals to integrate Hindus and Muslims into a united Indian empire. INDIA AT THE ADVENT OF MUGHALS From 1504, Babur was the ruler of Kabul which is now a part of Afghanistan. He was attracted to India for its wealth. At that time, Ibrahim Lodi (the Sultan on the Delhi throne) was very unpopular. There was no political stability. Babur was invited by Rana Sangha, the ruler of Mewar, Daulat Khan Lodi, the governor of Punjab and Alam Khan, Ibrahim's uncle, to defeat Ibrahim Lodi and end the Great Delhi Sultanate. All of them hoped that Babur would leave from India after defeating Ibrahim Lodi and plundering the country. But Babur's intentions were somewhat different. Babur turned to India to satisfy his appetite for conquest. Also, he considered India as his territory since it had been conquered by his ancestor, Timur. Sources of Information By the time Mughals settled in India, paper was available. Thus we have profound numbers of literary sources of information for this period. Autobiographies of Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb are written in Persian language and are valuable sources of information. Other than these, Abul Fazal, Bdauni, Amir Khusrau, Abdul Hamid Lahori and Inayat Khan are other main contributors of this period. Foreign literature by Thomas Roe, William Hawkins and Francois Bernier; also contribute in knowing the Mughal Period deeply. Miniature painting of Mughal Period, coins and monuments available in abundance are other important sources of information this glorious era of Mughals. EARLY MUGHALS AND THE SUR EMPIRE Babur The Mughal Empire was founded by Timurid prince Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur. He was a descendent of Timur from his father's side and Genghis Khan from his mother's side. He inherited Fargana at a very young age. He fought a number of wars and was so ferocious on the battlefield that he was given the title of 'tiger'. Q. why did Babur consider India as his ancestral territory? First Battle of Panipat?Babur was a seasoned military commander. He entered more...

Catgeory: 7th Class

Notes - The Delhi Sultanate

The Delhi Sultanate The defeat of Prithviraj Chauhan by Muhammad Ghori in 1192 CE was a turning point in the history of India. It inaugurated an era of Muslim rule in India. In fact, Prithviraj was the last Hindu ruler to sit on the throne of Delhi. The advent of the second millennium brought in Muslim rule m India. This had a deep and everlasting impact on the Indian culture. Five Muslim dynasties ruled India from Delhi and they called their empire-The Sultanate. The Delhi Sultanate refers to the Muslim rulers who ruled India through Delhi. The Sultanate began in Lahore, but subsequent rulers extended their territory eastwards and Delhi became the capital. The five dynasties of the Sultanate ruled for more than 300 years. The Sultanate came into existence after Muhammad Ghori captured Delhi by defeating Prithviraj Chauhan. When Muhammad Ghori went back, he appointed Qutb-ud-din Aybak as the viceroy of his territories in India. Qutb-ud-din Aybak was a Turkic1 slave who was appointed as the Viceroy to Delhi based on his qualities. He was a sharp warrior and Ghori awarded him the title of 'Malik'. When Muhammad Ghori died, Qutb-ud-din Aybak was quick to grab the opportunity to ascend the throne in 1206 CE. Sources of Information "Tarikh-i-FirozshaJii', "Fatziia-i-Jahandari" and 'PrithvirciJ Raso' are most prominent literary sources of information for this Sultanate period. Ziauddin Barani was the writer of first two works and Chand Bardai wrote the third one. First two books give detailed acccount of Tughluq period while Prithviraj Raso deals with the class and society structure of Rajput period. Some indirect references from other contemporary historians like Bdauni, Nizam-ud-din, etc. are also found. Indo-Islamic, Indo-Arabic, Persian, Urdu, Arabic and bilingual incriptions are also found on various archaeological sources like Qutb Minor, Atala Masjid, Jami Masjid and Adina Masjid, etc.

The Delhi Sultanate

Slave Dynasty

Qutb-ud-din Aybak lltutmish

1206-1210

New Kings and Kingdoms in India We have already read in the previous class that Marshals vast empire broke up after his death. Many small kingdoms appeared in India after the downfall of Harsha's empire and before the Turkish invasions. There was a constant struggle for power between the ruling kings and the chieftains of these small kingdoms. They fought to increase the land and wealth of their kingdom. NEW KINGS AND KINGDOMS The seventh century witnessed the emergence of big landlords or chieftains in various regions of the subcontinent. They were often considered as subordinates or samantas to the kings. They offered extravagant gifts to the kings. Also/ they maintained small armies which were used by the kings in the times of war. Over the period, many chieftains or samantas became very powerful. Some of these chieftains became ambitious and asserted their independence and set up their own small kingdoms. The Rashtrakuta, Gurjaras and Pratihara dynasties are the instances. Their origin is discussed later in the chapter. THE RAJPUTS Many Rajput dynasties ruled small kingdoms. They called themselves Rajput or Rajputrameaning 'son of a king'. There are many theories about the origin of the Rajputs. Some called themselves Suryavanshi, 'descendants of the Sun God', or Chandravanshi, 'descendants of the Moon God'. Some were called Agnikulas. They are believed to have been born out of a fire pit. The following tale tells us about the origin of the Agnikula Rajputs. Once a warrior saint, Parshurama, got very angry and destroyed all Kshatriyas. As a result, there were no warriors left. Therefore, all the Brahmanas got together and decided to do something about it. They organized a large fire pit at Mount Abu. After many chants and prayers, four warriors emergedfrom the fire pit. It is believed that these were the ancestors of the Agnikulas. The Rajputs were courageous and valiant. However, they constantly fought amongst themselves to show off their strength. Therefore, they could not set up a unified empire. Several small dynasties belonging to the Rajputs gradually rose to power and established their supremacy. Some of these were the Pratiharas, the Rashtrakutas and the Palas. THE PRATIHARAS The Pratiharas established a large empire in the region of Gujarat and Rajasthan from 6th to the 18th century CE. This dynasty was founded by King Harishchandra. He was a samanta of the Rashtrakuta dynasty. Nagabhata I ascended the throne in the 8th century. His capital was Ujjain. He fought many wars and extended his empire. He also defeated the Arabs and prevented their entry into India. The Pratiharas were involved in a more...

Catgeory: 7th Class

Notes - History-When, Where and How

History - When, Where and How History is a study of the past. This is facilitated by dividing the past into blocks of time. This is called periodisation and helps in the study and analysis of history. Indian History can be divided into three periods - ancient, medieval and modem. Our focus is on medieval history. Each period is characterised by numerous changes and developments. The medieval period of Indian history stretches from the 8th to the 18th century CE. This is further divided into early and later medieval periods. The early medieval period is from the 8th to the 13th century CE. This period saw the rise of Rajputs, followed by Muslim invasions into India. The 13th to 18th century CE is considered to be the later medieval period which saw the great Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire. James Mill, a British historian, has divided Indian history into three periods-Hindu Period, Muslim Period and Christian Period. This division has its flaws. This is based on the idea that religion determines history. However, a period of history cannot be characterized by the religion of the rulers. The lives, beliefs and practices of the common People have to be considered when history is recorded. Also, all rulers did not share the same religion. Many changes took place in these thousand years of the medieval period. The Indian sub-continent reached a high level of prosperity which led to major developments. MAJOR DEVELOPMENTS The medieval period was a period of change in every sphere - political, social, cultural, religious and economic. · Many Rajput kingdoms came up. They were warriors and fought to increase their empires. · India saw many invasions during this period. Mahmud of Ghazni and Muhammad of Ghor plundered India. This marked the advent of Islam in India. · The first Muslim empire in India was established by Muhammad of Ghor. Later, the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire were established. · The invaders brought in new ideas, new religion and new ways of thinking. · The economy of India flourished under the Mughals and they looked after the welfare of people. · Many new technologies were introduced like the 'Persian Wheel' in farming and the 'Spinning Wheel' in weaving textiles. · Many forests were cleared for agriculture. · The more...

Catgeory: 7th Class

Heat

Heat Synopsis

Heat is a form of energy that can be felt by us by the sense of touch.

Heat always flows from a hot body to a cold one, i.e., from a part that has more heat energy to the part having less heat energy.

Heat causes certain changes in a body mainly expansion and change of state. It increases the energy of the molecules.

Temperature is the measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of a body.

There are different scales of temperature. Celsius, Fahrenheit, Kelvin and Reaumur are some popularly used scales.

The average normal body temperature of human beings is \[37{{\,}^{o}}C\]or\[98.4{{\text{ }}^{o}}F.\]

There are different types of thermometers based on their uses. Some of them are clinical thermometers, laboratory thermometers, maximum and minimum thermometers. Each thermometer has a Lower Fixed Point (the lowest temperature it can measure) and an Upper Fixed Point (the highest temperature it can measure). They are denoted as L.F.P. and U.F.P. respectively.

Thermometer	Scale	L.F.P.	U.F.P.	Uses
Clinical	Celsius	\[{{35}^{{}^\circ }}C\]	\[{{42}^{{}^\circ }}C\]	To measure the body temperature by doctors
Laboratory	Celsius	\[-{{10}^{{}^\circ }}C\]	\[-{{110}^{{}^\circ }}C\]	To measure the temperature of various substances
Maximum and Minimum	Celsius / Fahrenheit	Varies	Varies	To find the maximum and minimum temperature of a day

When all the bodies and their surroundings have the same temperature, they are said to be in thermal equilibrium. The flow of heat takes place till thermal equilibrium is reached.

There are three modes of transfer of heat: conduction, convection and radiation.

The process by which heat is transferred from the hotter end to the colder end of an object is known as conduction.

The process of the transfer of heat in liquids or gases by the movement of molecules from the hotter to the colder part in circular currents is known as convection.

All bodies that are hot give out heat in all directions in straight lines. Such a transfer does not require any medium and is known as radiation.

Things that heat up slowly, cool down slowly. Those that heat up faster, cool faster.

more...

Catgeory: 7th Class

Light

Light Synopsis

Light is a form of energy. It is an electromagnetic radiation which can travel through vacuum with a speed of \[3\times {{10}^{8}}\text{ }m\text{ }{{s}^{-1}}.\]

We can see an object only when it reflects or scatters the light falling on it.

Light travels in straight lines. This property is known as the rectilinear propagation of light. Shadows are formed due to this property of light.

Substances which allow light to pass through them are called transparent. Substances which absorb some amount of light incident on them and lets the remaining light to pass through them are called translucent substances. Substances which do not allow light to pass through them are called opaque objects.

A polished or shining surface acts as a mirror and regular reflection takes place from its surface.

When a beam of light falls on a smooth surface, the rays are reflected in a particular direction. This is called regular reflection.

When there is no regular reflection, sharp images are not obtained and cannot be seen by us. This happens because of scattering of light due to irregular reflection.

The three laws of reflection:

(a) The incident ray, the normal at the point of incidence and the reflected ray lie in the same plane. (b) The incident ray and the reflected ray lie on either side of the normal. (c) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

An image which can be obtained on a screen is called a real image,

An image which cannot be obtained on a screen is called a virtual image.

The image formed by a plane mirror is erect, virtual and is of the same size as the object The image is at the same distance behind the mirror as the object is in front of it.

In an image formed by a plane mirror, the left side of the object is seen on the right side in the image, and the right side of the object appears to be on the left side in the image. This is known as lateral inversion.

Mirrors which have curved surfaces are called spherical mirrors. A convex mirror has outward curvature while a concave mirror has inward curvature.

The image formed by a convex mirror is always virtual, erect and diminished than the object

A concave mirror can form a real and inverted image. When the object is placed very close to the mirror, the image formed is virtual, erect and magnified.

White light is composed of seven colours.

Catgeory: 7th Class

Electric Current and Its Effect

Electric Current and Its Effects Synopsis

The path of electric current when it flows through wires, cells (source of electricity), a key (switch) and a bulb (fuse) without a break is called a circuit. A simple electric circuit consists of a source of electricity (electric cell) /connectors (wire) and utilizers of electricity. e.g., bulb.

While drawing circuit diagrams, the electric components are represented by certain symbols. Some of them are shown in the chart given below.

Components	Symbols
Cell
Battery
Tap Key / Switch
Resistor
Fuse
Bulb

A cell is made of chemicals which react when the two terminals are connected and the electric charges which start flowing is called electricity.

A battery is a combination of many cells with the positive terminal of one cell connected to the negative terminal of the next cell.

Electric current flows through a circuit only when there is a continuity in the circuit without any break. Such a circuit is called ‘closed’ circuit. Whenever there is any break in the circuit/current stops flowing. This kind of circuit is called an 'open’ circuit.

A key or a switch used in the circuit usually breaks the circuit when it is in the OFF position while it allows electric current to flow when it is in the ON position.

When electric current flows through a substance it offers some resistance. This resistance varies with the material, thickness and the length of the substance. Due to resistance, some of the electrical energy gets converted into other forms of energy like heat and light.

Substances that allow electricity to pass through (having less resistance) are called conductors.

Substances that do not allow electricity to pass through (having high resistance) are called poor conductors or insulators.
Electricity can also produce magnetic effects. Electromagnets are made based on this principle. Electromagnets are very widely used in fans, motors, radio, T.V., electric bells, etc.

Catgeory: 7th Class

Physical and Chemical changes

Physical and Chemical Changes Synopsis

Most of the changes occurring around us can be classified into physical and chemical changes.

Properties like the shape, size, colour and the state of a substance are called physical properties.

A change in the physical properties of a substance is called a physical change.

Physical changes are usually reversible and no new substances are formed.

A change in which one or more new substances are formed is called a chemical change.

Chemical changes take place because of chemical reactions.

Exchange of heat, light, sound, smell or colour can be observed in chemical changes.

Chemical changes are irreversible.

The process of coating iron with a layer of zinc to protect it from rusting is called galvanization.

The formation of large crystals of pure substances from their solutions is called crystallization. It is a physical change.

Differences between physical and chemical changes:

Physical Changes	Chemical Changes
(i) Change is temporary (ii) It can be reversed. (iii)No new substances are formed. Only physical properties of the substances change. (iv)No energy change takes place	(i) Change is permanent. (ii) It cannot be reversed by simple chemical or physical means. (ii) New substances with di? erent chemical properties are formed (iv) Energy changes take place.

Catgeory: 7th Class

Acid, Bases and Salts

Acids, Bases and Salts Synopsis

Some of the food items that man takes are usually sour or bitter to taste.

The sour taste is due to the presence of acids while the bitter taste is due to the presence of bases.

The word acid comes from latin word "acere" which means sour.

Properties of acids:

(i) Sour in taste (ii) Corrosive in nature (iii) Turns blue litmus to red

Properties of bases:

(i) Bitter to taste (ii) Feels soapy on touching (iii) Turns red litmus to blue

Salts - Salts are produced by the neutralisation of acids with bases. They are also produced when acids react with metals or metallic oxides, and when bases react with acidic oxides, Acids react with salts to usually produce other acids and salts. They react with carbonates to produce \[C{{O}_{2}},\]salt and water.

Indicators are special type of substances used to test whether a substance is acidic or basic Turmeric, litmus, china rose petals (Gudhal), etc., are some of the naturally occurring indicators.

	Litmus	Phenolphthalein	Methyl orange
Acid	Blue to Red	Colour less	Orange to Red
Base	Red to Blue	Pink	Orange to yellow
Neutral	Purple	Colour less	Orange

The solutions which do not change the colour of either red or blue litmus are known as neutral solutions.

The reaction between an acid and a base is known as neutralisation. Salt and water are produced in this process with the evolution of heat.

Acid + Base \[\to \]Salt + Water (Heat is evolved) e.g., Hydrochloric acid (HC/) + Sodium hydroxide \[(NaOH)\to \] Sodium chloride (NaCl) + Water \[({{H}_{2}}O)\]