Functional Groups
A group of compound which determines the property of the hydrocarbon is called functional group. Particular types of reactions are associated with the functional groups with different structural attachments, resulting to names associated with such compounds.
The carbonyl group is the functional group involved with several of the hydrocarbon derivatives shown above. The carboxyl group is present in amino acids and carboxylic acids.
In chemistry, an alcohol is any organic compound in which a hydroxyl functional group (-OH) is bound to a carbon atom, usually connected to other carbon or hydrogen atoms. An important class are the simple acyclic alcohols, the general formula for which is\[{{C}_{n}}{{H}_{2n+1}}OH\] . Of those, ethanol \[({{C}_{2}}{{H}_{5}}OH)\] is the type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages, and in common speech the word alcohol refers specifically to ethanol.
Simple Alcohols
The most commonly used alcohol is ethanol, \[{{\mathbf{C}}_{\mathbf{2}}}{{\mathbf{H}}_{\mathbf{5}}}\mathbf{OH}\]. Ethanol has been produced and consumed by humans for millions of years, in the form of fermented and distilled alcoholic beverages. It is a clear flammable liquid that boils at 78.4 °C, which is used as an industrial solvent, car fuel, and raw material in the
chemical industry. In many countries, because of legal and tax restrictions on alcohol consumption, ethanol destined for other uses often contains additives that make it unpalatable poisonous. Ethanol in this form is known generally as denatured alcohol. When methanol is used, it may be referred to as methylated spirits.
Methanol \[{{(C{{H}_{3}}OH)}^{-}}\] Wood alcohol, Ethanol \[{{({{C}_{2}}{{H}_{5}}OH)}^{-}}\] Grain alcohol, IsopropyI alcohol \[{{({{C}_{3}}{{H}_{7}}OH)}^{-}}\] Rubbing alcohol, Pentanol \[{{({{C}_{5}}{{H}_{11}}OH)}^{-}}\] Amyl alcohol, Hexadecan-1-ol (C^H^OH)- Cetyl alcohol, Polyhydric alcohols \[{{C}_{2}}{{H}_{4}}{{(OH)}_{2}}^{-}\] Ethane-1 ,2-diol, Ethylene glycol \[{{C}_{3}}{{H}_{5}}{{(OH)}_{3}}\] Propane-1,2,3-triol, Glycerin \[{{C}_{4}}{{H}_{6}}{{(OH)}_{4}}^{-}\] Butane-1,2,3,4-tetraol, Erythritol \[{{C}_{5}}{{H}_{7}}{{(OH)}_{5}}\]-Pentane- 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 - pentol.
\[\underset{methanol}{\mathop{HO-C{{H}_{3}}}}\,\] \[\underset{ethanol}{\mathop{HO-C{{H}_{2}}-C{{H}_{3}}}}\,\] \[\underset{1-propanol}{\mathop{HO-C{{H}_{2}}-CH-C{{H}_{3}}}}\,\]
\[\underset{\text{1-octanol}}{\mathop{HO-C{{H}_{2}}-C{{H}_{2}}-C{{H}_{2}}-C{{H}_{2}}-C{{H}_{2}}-C{{H}_{2}}-C{{H}_{2}}-C{{H}_{3}}}}\,\]
\[\underset{\text{2-methyl-1-butanol}}{\mathop{HO-C{{H}_{2}}-\underset{\begin{smallmatrix}
| \\
C{{H}_{3}}
\end{smallmatrix}}{\mathop{C}}\,H-C{{H}_{2}}-C{{H}_{3}}}}\,\] \[\underset{\text{isoamyl}\,\text{alcohol}}{\mathop{HO-C{{H}_{2}}-C{{H}_{2}}-CH-C{{H}_{3}}}}\,\]
Physical Properties
Alcohols have an odor that is often described as "biting" and as "hanging" in the nasal passages.
In general, the hydroxyl group makes the alcohol molecule polar. Those groups can form hydrogen bonds to one another and to other compounds. This hydrogen bonding means that alcohols can be used as protic solvents. Two opposing solubility trends in alcohols are: the tendency of the polar OH to promote solubility in water, and the tendency of the carbon chain to resist it. Thus, methanol, ethanol, and propanol are miscible in water because the hydroxyl group wins out over the short carbon chain.
Butanol, with a four-carbon chain, is moderately soluble because of a balance between the two trends.
Alcohols of five or more carbons such as Pentanol and higher are effectively insoluble in water because of the hydrocarbon chain's dominance.
All simple alcohols are miscible in organic solvents.
Introduction
A hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon. Hydrocarbons from which one hydrogen atom has been removed are functional groups, called hydrocarbyls. Aromatic hydrocarbons (arenes), alkanes, alkenes, cycloalkanes and alkyne-based compounds are different types of hydrocarbons.
The majority of hydrocarbons found naturally occur in crude oil, where decomposed organic matter provides an abundance of carbon and hydrogen which, when bonded, can catenate to form millions of chains.
Types of Hydrocarbons
The classifications for hydrocarbons defined as follows:
Saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes) are the simplest of the hydrocarbon species and are composed entirely of single bonds and are saturated with hydrogen. The general formula for saturated hydrocarbons is\[{{\mathbf{C}}_{n}}{{\mathbf{H}}_{2n+2}}\]. Saturated hydrocarbons are the basis of petroleum fuels and are either found as linear or branched species. Hydrocarbons with the same molecular formula buts’ different structural formulae are called structural isomers. Methylhexane and its higher homologues, branched hydrocarbons can be chiral. Unsaturated hydrocarbons have one or more double or triple bonds between carbon atoms. Those with double bond are called alkenes. Those with one double bond have the formula \[{{\mathbf{C}}_{n}}{{\mathbf{H}}_{2n}}\]. Those containing triple bonds are called alkynes, with general formula \[{{\mathbf{C}}_{n}}{{\mathbf{H}}_{2n-2}}\].
Cycloalkanes are hydrocarbons; containing one or more carbon rings to which hydrogen atoms are attached. The general formula fora saturated hydrocarbon containing one ring is \[{{\mathbf{C}}_{n}}{{\mathbf{H}}_{2n}}\].
Metallurgy
In order to extract a pure metal from its ores various steps are to be followed which depends upon the nature of ore and reactivity of metal. In general the following steps are followed for extraction of metals from their ores: Dressing of ore (crushing/grinding) \[\to \] Isolation of metal from concentrated \[\to \] orerefining of extracted metal \[\to \] Pure metal Thus, metallurgy is defined as the process involved in the extraction of metals from their ores.
Dressing of Ore
The ore is first crushed into small pieces and then ground to fine powder in stamp mills,
Concentration or Enrichment of Ore
The ore extracted from earth contains impurities like sand, stone, saw dust etc. Depending upon the nature of ore and the impurities present any one of the following methods can be used.
Hydraulic Washing or Gravity Separation Method
This method is used when the ore particles are heavier than the impurities. The powdered ore is placed over a wooden inclined table. It is then sprayed with a stream of water which carries away the lighter impurities with it. The heavier ores are left behind on the wooden table.
Magnetic Separation
This method is used when either ore or the impurity is magnetic. It is carried on a conveyor belt moving on two rollers one of which is magnetic. As the ores falls down from the magnetic roller, the magnetic particles of the ore or impurities and the non-magnetic particles take up two different positions and are collected in two heaps.
Froth Flotation Method
This method is used for the concentration of sulphide ores. The powdered ore is mixed and agitated strongly and froth is produced. The sulphide ore particles are preferentially waited by the forth and are carried to the surface while the impurities settles at the bottom. The froth is removed and washed and then we get the concentrated ore.
Chemical Separation
This method is used when the ore contain large impurities and their effective separation is not possible by physical methods.
For concentrating bauxite ore the powered ore is mixed with hot and concentrated solution of sodium hydroxide. The ore forms soluble sodium metal aluminate, while the impurities remains insoluble which is filtered and removed. The filtrate is then hydrolyzed to get aluminium hydroxide precipitate. This precipitate is filtered and dried and then heated strongly more...
Extraction of Metals
Most of the metals occur in the earth's crust in the combined state. It is because they are reactive and combine with elements like oxygen, carbon, sulphur etc. Noble metals like gold, platinum etc. exist in free state as they are very less reactive. Minerals are the compounds or the combined form in which a metal occurs in the earth's crust. Ores are those minerals from which metals can be extracted conveniently and profitably. All ores are minerals, but all minerals are not ores
Some Common Ores
Reactivity Series of Metals
It is the arrangement of metals in a vertical column in the decreasing order of their reactivity. This is also known as reactivity series of metals.
\[K>Na>Ca>Mg>Al>Zn>Fe>Ni>Sn>Pb>H>Cu>Hg>Ag>Au>Pt\]
Advantages of Reactivity Series
It helps to compare the reactivity of given metals. The one which is placed higher in the reactivity series are more reactive than those placed lower in the series.
It helps to know if the metal will react with dilute acid to liberate hydrogen gas or not.
It helps in deciding suitable method for extraction of metals from their ores.
Chemical Properties of Metals
Reaction of Metals with Salt Solution
More reactive metal displaces a less reactive metal from its salt solution.
e.g. \[Fe+CuS{{O}_{4}}\to FeS{{O}_{4}}+Cu\] (Iron is more reactive than copper)
(Blue) (Green)
\[Ag+CuS{{O}_{4}}\to NO\] reaction (Silver is less reactive than copper so it cannot displace it.)
Reaction of Metals with Non-metals
Metals react with non-metals to form ionic compound.
e.g. \[2Na+C{{l}_{2}}\to 2NaCl\] and \[Ca+{{F}_{2}}\to Ca{{F}_{2}}\]
Ionic compounds are the compounds formed by losing and gaining of electrons.
e.g. \[Na+Cl\to \,\,[N{{a}^{+}}]\,\,{{[Cl]}^{-}}\,\to \,NaCl\]
Reaction of Metals with Hydrogen
Metals react with hydrogen to form metal hydrides. But only reactive metals like sodium, potassium and calcium form their hydrides.
\[2Na+{{H}_{2}}\to 2NaH\] and \[Ca+{{H}_{2}}\to Ca{{H}_{2}}\]
Metals act as reducing agents, it is because they can donate electrons and themselves get oxidized.
e.g. \[2Al+F{{e}_{2}}{{O}_{3}}\to A{{l}_{2}}{{O}_{3}}+2Fe\]
\[Al\to A{{l}^{3+}}+3{{e}^{-}}\]
Chemical Properties of Non-metals
Non-metals are electro negative in nature, i.e. they can accept electrons and form anions.
\[S+2{{e}^{-}}\to {{S}^{2-}}\] and \[F+{{e}^{-}}\to {{F}^{-}}\]
(2,8,6) (2,8,8) (2,7) (2,8)
Non-metals react with oxygen to form acidic oxides which turn red litmus blue.
\[S+{{O}_{2}}\to S{{O}_{2}},\] \[{{N}_{2}}+{{O}_{2}}\to 2NO\] and \[{{N}_{2}}+2{{O}_{2}}\to 2N{{O}_{2}}\]
Here, NO (nitric-oxide) is neutral, while N0^ (nitrogen dioxide) is acidic.
Non-metal do not react with dilute acids to liberate hydrogen gas. It is so because non - metals are less reactive than hydrogen and so they cannot displace hydrogen from mineral acids.
Non-metals react with hydrogen to form their hydrides which are covalent in nature.
Non-metals react with chlorine to form covalent chlorides.
e.g.: \[2S+C{{l}_{2}}\to SC{{l}_{2}}\], (Sulphurs chloride) and \[{{P}_{4}}+6C{{l}_{2}}\to 4PC{{l}_{3}}\]
Non-metals act as oxidizing agent as they have 5,6 or 7 valence electrons. They can therefore accept electrons to complete their octet.
Properties of Metalloids
Metalloids
There are those elements which behave as metals as well as non-metals. They have four valence electrons.
e.g.
Carbon (C-6) : 2,4
Silicon (Si-14) : 2, 8, 4
Which one of the following is the poorest conductor of electricity?
(a) Copper
(b) Aluminium
(c) Lead
(d) Silver
(e) None of these
Answer: (c)
Sodium is a metal because:
(a) It is an element
(b) It has 11 electrons
(c) It has one valence electron
(d) It has 11 protons
(e) None of these
Answer: (c)
Explanation
It is one valence electron. So it can donate one electron and form cations.
Physical Properties of Metals
Most metals are solid at room temperature except mercury and gallium, which are liquid at room temperature.
Uncorrode or freshly cut metals have shiny surface which is called metallic luster.
Metals are hard except sodium and potassium, which are soft and can be cut with knife.
Metals are sonorous i.e. they produce sound when hit against hard surface.
Metals have high melting and high boiling point. Sodium, potassium, mercury and gallium have low boiling point.
Metals are malleable i.e. they can be beaten into sheets. However Zinc, antimony, bismuth and arsenic are not malleable.
Metals are ductile i.e. they can be drawn into wires except zinc, antimony, bismuth and arsenic.
Metals are good conductor of heat and electricity. Silver is the best conductor while Bismuth, lead and tungsten do not conduct heat through them.
Metals have high tensile strength.
Physical properties of non-metals
Non-metals exist in all the three physical states. For example carbon, phosphorous and sulphur are solid, while bromine is liquid, rest all are gaseous at room temperature.
Most of the non-metals are soft, except diamond, which is an allotrope of carbon.
They have low density except bromine, iodine which are quite heavy.
Non-metals are neither malleable nor ductile.
They have low melting and boiling points.
Non-metals have low tensile strength except carbon fibres.
Non-metal are poor conductor of heat and electricity except graphite.
Chemical Properties of Metals
Metals are electropositive elements i.e. they have tendency to form cation by loosing electrons.
Reaction with Oxygen
Metals + Oxygen \[\to \] Metal oxides
Metal oxides are basic oxides and they react with acids to form salt and water
\[4Na+{{O}_{2}}\to 2N{{a}_{2}}O\]
\[N{{a}_{2}}O+{{H}_{2}}O\to 2NaOH\]
\[3Fe+2{{O}_{2}}\to F{{e}_{3}}{{O}_{4}}\]
Reactivity of metals with oxygen is : \[K>Na>Mg>Zn>Fe>Cu\]
Metal oxides, which are water soluble, are called alkali, e.g. \[N{{a}_{2}}O,\,\,{{K}_{2}}O\]
Non-Metals
These are the elements which have tendency to gain electrons. They are electronegative elements. They have 5,6, or 7 electrons is their valence shell. e.g.
Phosphorous (P-15) = 2,8,5
Sulphur (S-16) = 2,8,6
Non metals are placed on the right hand side of the periodic table. Phosphorus has three electrons in its outermost shell and can lose three electron to form\[{{P}^{3-}}\].
Introduction
Classification of metals, non-metals and metalloids. Physical and chemical properties of metals and non-metals. Extraction of metals. There are about K 118 elements known so far. All have different physical and chemical properties. These elements can be classified into metals, non-metals and metalloids on the basis of their electronic configuration.
Metals
There are the elements with 1,2 or 3 valence electrons. They are electropositive elements which can lose electrons and form cation e.g.
Sodium (Na-11) = 2,8,1
Calcium (Ca-20) = 2,8,2
Aluminium(AI-13) = 2,8,3
Metals are placed on left hand side of the periodic table.
Sodium loses one electron and forms \[N{{a}^{+}}\]
Magnesium loses two electrons to form \[M{{g}^{2+}}\]
Family of Salts
Washing Soda - \[N{{a}_{2}}C{{O}_{3}}.10{{H}_{2}}O\] (Sodium Carbonate Decahydrate)
It is manufactured by Solvay's process also known as ammonia soda process.
Raw Materials Required
Brine (concentrated sodium chloride solution).
Ammonia gas
Carbon dioxide
Steps Involved
\[N{{H}_{3}}+{{H}_{2}}O+C{{O}_{2}}\to N{{H}_{4}}HC{{O}_{3}}\]
Ammonium hydrogen carbonate
\[N{{H}_{4}}HC{{O}_{3}}+NaCl\to N{{H}_{4}}Cl+NaHC{{O}_{3}}\]
\[2NaHC{{O}_{3}}\to N{{a}_{2}}C{{O}_{3}}+C{{O}_{2}}+{{H}_{2}}O\]
\[N{{a}_{2}}C{{O}_{3}}+10{{H}_{2}}O\to N{{a}_{2}}C{{O}_{3}}.10{{H}_{2}}O\]
(Washing soda)
Properties of Washing Soda
It is white transparent crystalline solid.
It contains ten molecules of water of crystallization.
Baking soda is a mixture of sodium hydrogen carbonate and tartaric acid. On heating it reacts to produce carbon dioxide gas which escapes and makes the food stuffs spongy.
In soda acid fire extinguisher baking soda is used with sulphuric acid. When the extinguisher is used, sulphuric acid reacts with baking soda to produce carbondioxide and water which cuts off the supply of air and stops fire.
\[{{H}_{2}}S{{O}_{4}}+2NaHC{{O}_{3}}\to N{{a}_{2}}S{{O}_{4}}+2C{{O}_{2}}+2{{H}_{2}}O\]
Bleaching Powder \[(CaOC{{l}_{2}})\] (Calcium Oxychloride)
It is prepared by the action of chlorine gas on dry slaked lime.
\[Ca{{(OH)}_{2(S)}}+C{{l}_{2(g)}}\to CaC{{l}_{2(s)}}+{{H}_{2}}{{O}_{(l)}}\]
Because of this reaction bleaching powder is also called chloride of lime.
Properties
Yellowish white powder of calcium oxychloride has a strong smell of chlorine.
When left open in air, it decomposes slowly and liberate chlorine gas.
In pure water:
\[[{{H}^{+}}]=[O{{H}^{-}}]\]
In acidic solution \[[{{H}^{+}}]>[O{{H}^{-}}]\] and in basic solution \[[{{H}^{+}}]<[O{{H}^{-}}]\]
pH of some common samples
Human blood (7.3-7.5)
Soil alkaline (7-9)
Wine (6.5 - 7.5)
Cow's milk (4.8 - 8.4)
Lemon Juice (6.3-6.6)
Astric Juice (1 - 2) -
Importance of pH in Daily Life
Aluminium hydroxide \[[Al{{(OH)}_{3}}]\] is used for treatment of gastric ulcers.
The gastric ulcer is due to excessive secretion of hydrochloric acid in the stomach. The hydrochloric acid is secreted by stomach inner lining for digesting food. But its excessive secretion causes ulcer. Aluminium hydroxide is a base and it slowly neutralizes the excess of acid and gives relief to the patient.
In Agriculture citrus crops grow better in alkaline soils, while sugarcane grow better in neutral soil.
The pH of soil is to be tested before growing the crop.
In cosmetics - soaps, shampoos, creams etc are prepared with suitable pH for different types of skins.
Tooth decay - When pH of our mouth reaches a value less than 5.5, the enamel of tooth starts-decaying. In presence of sugar and food particles in the mouth the bacterial action starts and acid is produced. This acid is naturalized by alkaline saliva in the mouth. The acid which is not neutralized can be removed by brushing with a tooth paste as they are alkaline and prevents the tooth decay.
The sting of honey bee is very painful as it contains methanoic acid. To get relief, a milk solution of baking soda can be applied.
Functional Groups
A group of compound which determines the property of the hydrocarbon is called functional group. Particular types of reactions are associated with the functional groups with different structural attachments, resulting to names associated with such compounds.
The carbonyl group is the functional group involved with several of the hydrocarbon derivatives shown above. The carboxyl group is present in amino acids and carboxylic acids.
In chemistry, an alcohol is any organic compound in which a hydroxyl functional group (-OH) is bound to a carbon atom, usually connected to other carbon or hydrogen atoms. An important class are the simple acyclic alcohols, the general formula for which is\[{{C}_{n}}{{H}_{2n+1}}OH\] . Of those, ethanol \[({{C}_{2}}{{H}_{5}}OH)\] is the type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages, and in common speech the word alcohol refers specifically to ethanol.
Introduction
A hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon. Hydrocarbons from which one hydrogen atom has been removed are functional groups, called hydrocarbyls. Aromatic hydrocarbons (arenes), alkanes, alkenes, cycloalkanes and alkyne-based compounds are different types of hydrocarbons.
The majority of hydrocarbons found naturally occur in crude oil, where decomposed organic matter provides an abundance of carbon and hydrogen which, when bonded, can catenate to form millions of chains.
Saturated hydrocarbons (alkanes) are the simplest of the hydrocarbon species and are composed entirely of single bonds and are saturated with hydrogen. The general formula for saturated hydrocarbons is\[{{\mathbf{C}}_{n}}{{\mathbf{H}}_{2n+2}}\]. Saturated hydrocarbons are the basis of petroleum fuels and are either found as linear or branched species. Hydrocarbons with the same molecular formula buts’ different structural formulae are called structural isomers. Methylhexane and its higher homologues, branched hydrocarbons can be chiral. Unsaturated hydrocarbons have one or more double or triple bonds between carbon atoms. Those with double bond are called alkenes. Those with one double bond have the formula \[{{\mathbf{C}}_{n}}{{\mathbf{H}}_{2n}}\]. Those containing triple bonds are called alkynes, with general formula \[{{\mathbf{C}}_{n}}{{\mathbf{H}}_{2n-2}}\].
Cycloalkanes are hydrocarbons; containing one or more carbon rings to which hydrogen atoms are attached. The general formula fora saturated hydrocarbon containing one ring is \[{{\mathbf{C}}_{n}}{{\mathbf{H}}_{2n}}\].
Metallurgy
In order to extract a pure metal from its ores various steps are to be followed which depends upon the nature of ore and reactivity of metal. In general the following steps are followed for extraction of metals from their ores: Dressing of ore (crushing/grinding) \[\to \] Isolation of metal from concentrated \[\to \] orerefining of extracted metal \[\to \] Pure metal Thus, metallurgy is defined as the process involved in the extraction of metals from their ores.
Dressing of Ore
The ore is first crushed into small pieces and then ground to fine powder in stamp mills,
This method is used when the ore particles are heavier than the impurities. The powdered ore is placed over a wooden inclined table. It is then sprayed with a stream of water which carries away the lighter impurities with it. The heavier ores are left behind on the wooden table.
This method is used for the concentration of sulphide ores. The powdered ore is mixed and agitated strongly and froth is produced. The sulphide ore particles are preferentially waited by the forth and are carried to the surface while the impurities settles at the bottom. The froth is removed and washed and then we get the concentrated ore.
For concentrating bauxite ore the powered ore is mixed with hot and concentrated solution of sodium hydroxide. The ore forms soluble sodium metal aluminate, while the impurities remains insoluble which is filtered and removed. The filtrate is then hydrolyzed to get aluminium hydroxide precipitate. This precipitate is filtered and dried and then heated strongly more... 
Extraction of Metals
Most of the metals occur in the earth's crust in the combined state. It is because they are reactive and combine with elements like oxygen, carbon, sulphur etc. Noble metals like gold, platinum etc. exist in free state as they are very less reactive. Minerals are the compounds or the combined form in which a metal occurs in the earth's crust. Ores are those minerals from which metals can be extracted conveniently and profitably. All ores are minerals, but all minerals are not ores
Some Common Ores
Reactivity Series of Metals
It is the arrangement of metals in a vertical column in the decreasing order of their reactivity. This is also known as reactivity series of metals.
\[K>Na>Ca>Mg>Al>Zn>Fe>Ni>Sn>Pb>H>Cu>Hg>Ag>Au>Pt\]
Advantages of Reactivity Series
Metalloids
There are those elements which behave as metals as well as non-metals. They have four valence electrons.
e.g.
Carbon (C-6) : 2,4
Silicon (Si-14) : 2, 8, 4
Which one of the following is the poorest conductor of electricity?
(a) Copper
(b) Aluminium
(c) Lead
(d) Silver
(e) None of these
Answer: (c)
Physical Properties of Metals
Non-Metals
These are the elements which have tendency to gain electrons. They are electronegative elements. They have 5,6, or 7 electrons is their valence shell. e.g.
Phosphorous (P-15) = 2,8,5
Sulphur (S-16) = 2,8,6
Non metals are placed on the right hand side of the periodic table. Phosphorus has three electrons in its outermost shell and can lose three electron to form\[{{P}^{3-}}\]. 
Introduction
Classification of metals, non-metals and metalloids. Physical and chemical properties of metals and non-metals. Extraction of metals. There are about K 118 elements known so far. All have different physical and chemical properties. These elements can be classified into metals, non-metals and metalloids on the basis of their electronic configuration.
Family of Salts
Washing Soda - \[N{{a}_{2}}C{{O}_{3}}.10{{H}_{2}}O\] (Sodium Carbonate Decahydrate)
It is manufactured by Solvay's process also known as ammonia soda process.
Raw Materials Required
Properties of Washing Soda
Baking Soda (NaHCO3) (Sodium hydrogen carbonate)
Ph Meter
At 25°c temperature:
pH of some common samples
Importance of pH in Daily Life
