Current Affairs Secondary School Level

Outline: Explaining the term and describing the brief condition of the calamity. Early history of the oceanic earthquakes causing tsunami. Generation of tsunami. Attempts to detect tsunami. Measure to reduce damages caused onshore during tsunami. The term ‘tsunami', also referred as 'tidal waves', comes from the Japanese language. Tsu means, “Harbour” and name means, “Wave”. Tsunami has a wavelength ranging from 10 to 500 kilometers. Thus, it is a series of ocean waves with very long wavelength. Tsunami produces waves of water that moves inshore. The inland movement of water is much greater and lasts for a longer period, giving the impression of an incredibly high tide. However, the term tsunami is no more accurate because tsunami is not limited to harbours. As early as 426 BC the Greek historian Thucydides investigated in his book 'History of the Peloponnesian War' about the causes of tsunami. He was the first to argue that ocean earthquakes must be the cause of tsunami. Japan has the longest record of tsunamis. Absolute destruction caused by the tsunami wave marks it as the most devastating natural calamity. Tsunami generates when the sea floor abruptly deforms and vertically dislodges the overlying water. Tectonic earthquakes are particular kind of earthquakes that are associated with the earth's crustal deformation. When these earthquakes occur beneath the sea, the water above displaces from its position. About 80% of tsunamis occur in the Pacific Ocean. However, there are possibilities that it can occur where there are large bodies of water. Earthquakes, landslides and volcanic outbursts cause tsunami. A tsunami in the deep ocean has a wavelength of about 200 kilometers. Such a wave travels at nearly 800 kilometers per hour. Ships can rarely notice their passage. Open bays and coastlines adjacent to very deep water may shape the tsunami further into a step-like wave. Several attempts are made to set up scales to detect tsunami. The first scales used to measure the intensity of tsunami were, the Sieberg- Ambraseys scale in the Mediterranean Sea and the Imamura-lida intensity scale in the Pacific Ocean. The latter scale was modified to calculate the intensity of tsunami. In some tsunami-prone nations, measures are taken to reduce the damages caused onshore. Japan, where tsunami science and response measures first began, has produced elaborate counter-measures and plans. To protect populated coastal areas many tsunami walls of up to 15 feet are constructed. Channels to redirect the water from tsunami are also built. However, their effectiveness has been questioned as tsunami often overtops the barriers. The wall may have succeeded in slowing down and moderating the height of the tsunami, but it has not prevented major destructions and loss of life.

An earthquake is a natural phenomenon. It is the shaking and vibration of the surface of the earth resulting from underground movement along a fault plane or from volcanic activity. It is also defined as 'the sudden, sometimes violent movement of the earth's surface due to the release of energy in the earth's crust’. The earth is not a perfect sphere like a ball. It is slightly flattened at both poles, north and south, so that it resembles a giant orange. Inside, it is more like an onion because it consists of several layers. The outermost layer, the part we all know, is called the crust. The earth's crust is made up of a series of huge, irregularly - shaped plates, i.e. tectonic plates, on which the continents sit. In some places these plates overlap. Earthquakes are caused by the edges rubbing together of two plates and their movement in sudden jerks causing release of elastic energy which travels outward from the epicenter in the form of shock waves. Maximum destruction occurs at the epicenter. The earth's crust is not very thick - about 8 km under the oceans and 4 times that under the continents. The great Tokyo earthquake of 1923, which is believed to have killed about 25 million people, was caused by the twisting of a section of the earth's crust in Sagami Bay. The Richter scale, named after the US geologist Charles Richter measures the intensity of earthquakes from 1 to 10. There are over a million earthquakes annually, including those too small to be felt (Richter scale reading less than 2). These, together with three more groups’ i.e. potentially perceptible, generally- felt, and minor, account for a little under one million. Those assessed from a magnitude of 5 upwards are potentially damaging. The greatest destruction is caused by an earthquake of a magnitude of 8 or higher and it is likely to occur only once a year. The smallest vibration usually felt by human beings is 2. In recent times, three powerful earthquakes have struck India. The first one hit the sub continent on 26 January 2001 in Bhuj district of Gujarat having a magnitude of 7.9 with the epicenter (i.e. origin) in the Rann of Kutchh (about 21 km NE of Bhuj), a desert plateau in the Western India near the border of Pakistan. Over 100,000 were estimated to have perished and at least 200,000 stranded. The tremors were felt as far as Delhi and Central India besides the whole of Gujarat. The second, with a magnitude of 6 struck on 30 September 1993 in the Latur district of Maharashtra State, killing over 10,000 people and injuring another 30,000. The third strong earthquake of 7.6 magnitude hit the northern most state of Jammu and Kashmir on 8 October 2005. This quake had its epicenter close to Muzaffarabad (138 km north of Islamabad) causing more damage to the Pakistan side. On the Indian side, over 1300 people were killed and over 6000 injured. There is more...

In the modem world advertisements are ubiquitous. They hit the eye from the hoarding, loom large in the news-papers, and gleam out of the celluloid. They may be brief or elaborate, illustrated with pictures or illuminated with neon lights. It is impossible to overestimate the importance of modern advertisements, for they create, if not the things they praise, their image in the public mind, and it is their image that counts for much. Tono-Bungay, a novel by H. G. Wells, contains a delightful criticism of advertisements. Tono-Bungay is the name of a so-called tonic, a worthless syrup. But it was advertised so widely and attractively that it brought enormous wealth to its manufacturer. An early mode of advertisement was the trio of questions: “Are you bored with your Business? Are you bored with your Dinner? Are you bored with your Wife?” When Tono-Bungay was a great success, the public were introduced to several allied products like Tono-Bungay Mouthwash and Tono-Bungay Chocolate. Some posters showed climbers hanging from tall cliffs and champion cyclists upon the track. Wells ridicules a society which allows a man to amass limitless wealth for sitting in his office and telling it lies. Wells is writing about the early ways of advertising in 1920s. Since then, however, there has been no essential change in the technique of newspaper advertisement; only, one notices greater refinement and greater emphasis on novelty. “If you come across a better soap” said an apparently modest advertisement, “use it”. Another interesting advertisement shows a large picture of a horse trying to laugh and begins with the words in capitals “It certainly deserves a horse-laugh!” You read on, wondering what the advertisement is about. “The idea of trying to save something at the end of the month deserves a horse laugh. Once you start spending your income you may not have anything left to save.” So it is an advertisement meant to popularise the Savings Bank scheme of a bank. This craze for novelty seems to have influenced even the “Wanted Ads” where straightforwardness has been the tradition. An advertisement for the post of private secretary began with the unusual words “I am desperate” printed in bold type. Then followed the explanation in smaller type “because I am in search of a very competent private secretary etc.” Though modern commercial advertisements be they through the radio, television or the internet, they do not tell outright lies, they grossly exaggerate the merits of their wares. There is something mean and vulgar in the way many of them first secure our attention and then artfully coax us into accepting their exaggerated estimates. In view of the fact that more and more people are beginning to see through the tricks of advertisement, some bold advertisers should now try, at least for a change, to be truthful and plain in their style. It is an experiment worth making, for calling a spade a spade, would perhaps be the greatest novelty in the world of advertising!

India is not only rich in villages, but in cities too. There are innumerable cities. Some are very big cities like Bombay, Calcutta, Delhi or Madras. Then there are medium sized cities like Bangalore, Hyderabad, Pune, Ahmedabad, Kanpur, Lucknow, Allahabad and Chandigarh etc. Then again, there are plenty of smaller citiies too. They all have their, special qualities and appeal to different types of people My own favourite city is Bombay. Prpbably ho other city has so much to offer. When a visitor goes there he finds that Bombay is almost surrounded by the sea. There are deep harbours and wonderful beaches like the Juhu Beach, Versova, Chowpati beach. People gather here for swimming or just walking and having picnics. The evenings are like fairs here with Bhel-puri and ice-cream and Nariyal-pani and pony rides and film-unite busy shooting on these beaches. The Gateway of India, a huge stone monument facing the sea and having the famous TajMahal Hotel as a backdrop, is another very important and popular place for visitors. Nearby are the docks where the ocean-going ships come for loading and unloading. A short distance away on the other side is the famous Marine Drive and the Queen's Necklace which looks beautiful in the day and absolutely magical in the night. The famous Hanging garden on the high hill with is topiary and the breath-taking view of the Chowpaty beach and Marine drive in the distance, the Parsee Tower of Silence', Nehru Centre with its Planetarium, Mahalaxmi race-course, Taraporewala Aquarium, the Zoo, the Museum at Kala Ghora, the Elephanta caves, are some of the important places to see. Not only this, there are fabulous markets like Crawford Market, Fort Market, Dadar market, Linking Road Market etc. Also, some of the finest educational institutions of the country are situated here in Bombay. The city also boasts of innumerable famous hotels and fabulous eating places. The magic world of cinema with its galaxy. of famous stars, producers, directors, music directors, writers, its studios and shootings is also situated here. The local electric trains, both W.R. and C.R. stopping at stations every two kilometers offer wonderful joyrides. The innumerable buses, the disciplined crowd and the fast life make Bombay a fantastic city. Its climate, neither hot nor cold, makes it still more desirable. Yes, my favourite city is Bombay.

Last night I dreamt my toy airplane had come to life. It could fly as well as float on water. My nice red and white toy plane had become real. I took the plane and flew from my terrace top. Suddenly we were above the ocean; I wanted to see the dolphins from closer. The airplane on its own came down and started to float on the sea. We were so close to the dolphins, I could even touch them. Wow the airplane was able to float; it was also able to read my thoughts. I was so happy that my toy plane had come real. I spend the whole day flying around the globe. We went to many exotic places both in air and on water. It was such an amazing experience.

Mrs. Sadhana's voice soon had me dreaming. There, I was sitting in History Class but in my head I was in Faraway Land. I had won an Enid Blyton quiz and I had been invited to visit Faraway tree. I was excited, I couldn't believe it! There I was, looking up at the Faraway Tree standing tall, reaching out to the sun. It seemed to go on forever, almost touching the clouds. I couldn't wait to meet Moon-face, Silky the fairy, The Saucepan Man, Dame Washalot, Mr. Watzisname and the Angry Pixie. Moon-face was just as the book described. He had a large round face that looked exactly like the moon. He showed me the slippery slide that ran down from his house to the bottom of the tree. As I slid down the slide I got drenched in the dirty water that Dame Washalot threw down the tree. As I climbed back on to the tree I was stopped by Saucepan Man. His pans were making a whole lot of clatter and he looked funny juggling them. Fanny showed me where the Angry Pixie lived and warned me not to peep into his house as he was known to throw whatever was in his hand at whoever dared to peep inside. Then we met Silky the fairy. She was beautiful and had the silkiest golden hair that I had seen. Saucepan Man's mother smelled like the warm cake she had been baking in the shop. She offered us brownies, cookies and milk. I wanted to stay on but knew I had to leave before it got dark so I quickly said good bye and climbed down the tree. I felt water on my face and thought it was Dame Washalot again, but was shocked to find Mrs. Sadhana, glass in hand, standing in front of my face. I couldn't believe that I had been dreaming all the while. What a lovely dream it had been.

Outline: Volcanoes posing hazards to mankind. After eruption lava fires out. What happens after volcanic outburst? Classifying volcanoes on the bases of eruption. Volcanic outbursts have always posed extreme hazards and death-traps to civilizations. The word volcano is derived from the name “Vulcans”. Vulcans is a volcanic island in the Aeolian Islands of Italy. The study of volcanoes is called volcanology. However, a volcano is an opening in an earth's crust. This opening allows hot magma, volcanic ash and gases to escape out from below the surface of the earth. Molten rock is called magma when it is below the surface of the earth. After it erupts from on opening, it is called Java. Lava is red-hot when it fires out of a vent. Originating several miles underneath the ground, the rising lava contains crystals, dissolved gases and solid pieces of rocks. Mostly this liquid is made up of oxygen, silicon, aluminium, iron, magnesium, calcium, sodium, potassium, and manganese. Due to the tremendous pressure of different gases, molten rock forces its way skyward to break through a weak spot in the earth's crust. When an eruption occurs, it explodes into the air and the molten rock pours out. The lava starts flowing. Some of the finer materials may be carried far off by wind and fall to the ground miles away. Even finer dust particles are thrown high into the atmosphere. These particles are also carried around the biosphere (Earth) by high altitude winds before being fallen somewhere. Gradually, the colour of the lava changes to a dark grey, black or even red as it cools and hardens. After cooling, the liquid magma solidifies to form igneous rock. Volcanoes are generally found where there is stretching and thinning of the earth's crust. For example, the Wells Gray Clearwater volcanic field in Eastern African Rift and the Rio Grande Rift in Northern America. A popular way of classifying volcanoes is by their frequency of eruption. Those volcanoes which erupt regularly are called active volcanoes. On the other hand those that have erupted in historical times but are now quiet are called dormant volcanoes. However, those volcanoes which have not erupted in historical times are called extinct volcanoes. Scientists usually consider a volcano to be erupting or likely to erupt if it is currently erupting; or showing signs of unrest such as unusual earthquakes. There is no real accord among volcanologists on how to define an “active” volcano. The life span of a volcano can vary from months to several million years. Many volcanoes have erupted in past few thousand years but are currently not showing signs of eruption.

Conservation is 'the ant of conserving f flora fauna, environment) i.e. keeping the entire’, “nature” may refer to the general realm of various types of living plants and animals and in some cases to the processes associated with inanimate objects. It is often taken to mean the "natural environment" or wilderness - wild animals, rocks, forest, beaches, and in general those things that have not been substantially altered by human intervention or which persist despite human intervention. Conserving nature is like money in the bank. Therefore, nature conservation must adopt a conserving and restorative approach guided by human requirements and values. The only saviour of nature is human being who lives amidst nature. Man's higher aspirations and greed have been the main reasons behind destruction of the environment. The premise which is required to be held now is that mankind should control and manage the natural world. The Technological culture, with its intrusions on the natural world, has to be curtailed to preserve the ecology of the planet and our role in it. Historically, a set of threats generated from the burgeoning human population, mass agriculture, deforestation, overgrazing, slash-and-burn, urban development, pesticide use, industrialization etc. have affected the planet's biodiversity. Worldwide, the effects of global warming and pollution add a potentially catastrophic threat to it. Biodiversity provides many ecosystem services such as its essential part in regulating the chemistry of our atmosphere, pollinating the crops, mimicked by man-made construction. Nature conservation is thus an important component of action for a sustainable society. Industrialized society is geared entirely towards output. What are not factored into the equation are the natural services needed to support this output. Why? Because nature's services are considered free. People don't worry about stopping the outrageous use, because the 'savings' associated with conserving nature are spread throughout the society, whereas the profits earned are immediate and benefit a narrow group of individuals. As a result, man's greed for more and more has taken its toll on the earth upsetting the ecological balance terribly. The consumer conservation ethic should be the four R's -'Rethink Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle'. This social ethic primarily relates to sustained and efficient use of renewable resources, the moderation of destructive use of finite resources, prevention of harm to the common resources such as air and water quality, the natural function of living earth and cultural values in a built environment. The applied Science and Technology which is developing now alongside new social attitudes, realizes the values of natural resources. The conservation management seeks to foster attitudes in community and industry to the use of biological resources such as agricultures, fisheries, forestry, water, wildlife, genetic resources, changing from the earlier ‘maximum yield’ approach to sustainable yield. The secondary focus is on material conservation and energy conservation which are seen as important to protect the natural world. The early religions like Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism granted a sacred value to animals, forests, lakes and mountains. In the West, origins of concern can be traced to more...

Hobbies are pursuits we voluntarily take to in order to refresh and delight ourselves. They should be distinguished from the daily work we do in order to keep the pot boiling. What is one man's profession may be another man's hobby. Some cinema actors take to farming as a hobby, but, as we know, it is the occupation of the majority villagers. In this age of technology many middle class people, not to speak of the affluent, have a lot of leisure. One of the best ways of utilising it is to pursue a hobby. Those who cultivate hobbies never complain that life is dull and humdrum. They find inexhaustible interest and novelty in life. Full of zest and joy, they know not boredom and monotony. Absorbed in their favourite pursuits, they forget for the time being their professional worries and personal anxieties. They return to their daily work, relaxed and refreshed: Stamp-collecting, coin-collecting, gardening, photography, painting and reading are some of the well-known hobbies. One should choose one's hobby in accordance with one's temperament and interests. A philatelist alone knows the joy and thrills he feels when he stumbles upon a rare stamp. Gardening is a delightful hobby for those who are interested in it and who can afford it. How pleasant it is, after the day's work, to potter about in one's garden and stand amidst the lovely flowers and plants one has so lovingly reared! Photography too, can be very exciting and rewarding. With the help of his camera the photographer captures forever the objects, scenes and personalities that have enchanted him. They are thus saved from oblivion. Turning the pages of his album many years later, he may re-live the exciting moments of his life and vividly see again the places and faces that had impressed him. Many people take to reading as a means of relaxation and recreation. Novels and stories transport them into a delightful world which is yet like our own world. Reading not only pleases us but edifies us. Unfortunately, a large number of people in India have no hobbies. Many of them are too poor to pursue any hobby, much of their time and energy being consumed by the struggle for existence. Some of them devote all their time to the worship of what Ruskin called the Godess of Getting On, while others while away their leisure hours gossiping or just doing nothing. But, as far as possible, everybody should try to have a hobby. It imparts zest to life and is a rich source of pleasure and relaxation.

Allahabad is my favourite city. When I think of very big cities like Bombay, Calcutta, Delhi or Madras, I feel that they are good only for sight-seeing. They are like many small cities thrown together. Life there is too fast. The distances there are so great that people have to waste three to four hous in reaching their place of work and back. The crowds are terrible. People are so lost in their own business that they have no time for others. The result of all this is that life is very expensive, mechanical, full of tensions and mad hurry. Life in small cities is also not very attractive. They are not yet fully developed to provide all facilities like medical colleges, corporations, local bus-system, big educational institutions, employment avenues etc. One has to run to bigger cities to get all these facilities. Life also is very slow and sleepy. It is medium sized cities like Allahabad — neither very big nor very small — that are ideal for living. That is why I like Allahabad. It has so many good points to recommend itself. The population of Allahabad is around eight lakhs. It is surrounded on three sides by the two great rivers—the Ganga and the Jamuna. They meet at ' the 'Sangam’. Nereby is the famous fort built by Akbar, and now a military establishment. There are many other worth seeing places in Allahabad like Anand Bhawan, the sprawling Alfred Park where Chandrashfekhar Azad was shot dead, the " Museum, the beautiful Civil Lines, Planetarium; Nag Basuki, BharadwajAshram and many important temples. Allahabad is also an important centre of education with the Engineering College, the Medical College, Sangit Samiti, Prayag Mahila Vidyapith (established by the poetess Mahadevi Verma),the famous Allahabad University, often called the Oxford of the East and innumerable other education institutions. It is a clean city with wide roads. The bus system is efficient. Allahabad is well connected with other big cities by railway. Allahabad is a cultural city. Much cultural activity is seen here throughout the year. Great personalities like Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya, Pt, Motilal Nehru, Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru, Indira Gandhi, Shastriji, Pant, Nirala, Mahadevi Verma, Bacchan belonged to Allahabad. All this and much more makes Allahabad a very fine city and my great favourite.