Notes - Organisation Behaviour
Category :
15.1 Meaning of Organisation Behaviour
Organisation behaviour is the study of both group and individual performance and action within an enterprise. This field of study scans human behaviour in the working atmosphere. It determines its effect on job structure, performance, communication, motivation, leadership, decision-making abilities etc. The way an individual behaves and behaviour as a group have two perspectives: internal and external.
Objectives of organisational behaviour
15.1.1 Individual Dimensions of Organisational Behaviour
Individual Behaviour
These are the points which can explain individual and interpersonal behaviour:
These are beliefs imbued with emotional and motivational properties and are expressed in a person’s favourability towards an object.
According to Katz and Scotland, ‘A tendency or predisposition to evaluate an object or symbol of that object in a certain way’
|
Attitude and Behaviour
Individual’s behaviour is not simple and direct stimulus-response relationship. The response depends on completely, how he interprets the situation and on his own personal attitudes towards the situation. Attitude serves four functions to affect behaviour: · Instrumental Give cues to reach to a desired goal or avoid an undesired one. · Ego-defensive To protect a person from facing threats in external world. · Value Orientation Give cues that engage the person’s values and make salient to him. · Knowledge This function is based on a person’s need to maintain a stable, organised and meaningful structure of the world. |
Theories of Attitude Formation
A number of theories have been proposed to explain attitude formation. They can be grouped into:
(i) Cognitive Consistency Theories These theories are concerned with inconsistencies that arise between relative beliefs, bits of knowledge and /or evaluations about or an issue.
Some well-known cognitive consistency theories are:
(a) Balance Theory This theory has been given by Heider. It is based on three elements i.e. the person, other person and the impersonal entity. This theory helps in understanding the role of persuasive communication and interpersonal attractiveness in changing the attitudes.
(b) Congruity Theory Osgood and Tannenbaum proposed this theory. According to this theory, congruity exists when a source and concept are positively associated and incongruity exists when they are negatively associated. Incongruity leads to attitude change.
(c) Affective Cognitive Consistence Theory Rosenberg propounded this theory. It proposes that the relationship between the affective and the cognitive components of the attitude change, when an attitude is altered. The theory suggests that changes in affective component produce changes in cognitive component, in order to bring about consistency between the two.
(d) Cognitive Dissonance Theory This theory has been proposed by Leon Festinger. According to this theory, there are three types of cognitions i.e. dissonance, consonance and irrelevance. Cognitions are dissonance, when they are incompatible to each other. They are consonant, when one follows from other on the basis of logic and experience. Cognitions are irrelevant, when two events are not interrelated. The model of Festinger applies to several situations affecting behaviour of persons. In each behaviour, the person experiences dissonance when he engages in behaviour contrary to his attitudes.
(ii) Functional Theory Important theorists of functional theory are Katz and HC Kelman. The theory considers how attitudes and efforts are related to the motivational structure of the individual. An understanding of the functions served by attitudes is important for attitude change.
(iii) Social Judgement Theory Sherif and Hovland originally formulated this theory. It attempts to explain how existing attitudes produce distortions of attitudinally related objects and how these judgements mediate attitude change.
It has been derived from Latin word ‘per sonare’ which means to ‘speak through’. It denotes the ‘mask’ which the actors used to wear in ancient Greece. Thus, personality is used to influence others through external appearance. But, mere external appearance does not make the whole personality. It also includes the inner awareness of the self and the organisation of measurable traits, both inner and outer.
Personality Theories
The personality theories can be classified into:
(i) Psychoanalytic Theory Sigmund Freud is most closely related with this theory. However, Carl Jung, Karen Homey, Alfred Adier have also made separate contributions to this theory. The framework of this theory contains, three aspects, which are as follows:
(a) The id It is the source of psychic energy and seeks immediate gratification for biological or instinctual needs. Freud classified life instincts as hunger, thirst, and sex. As an individual matures, he learns to control the id. But even then, it remains an important source of thinking and behaving.
(b) The ego It is the conscious and the logical part of the human personality as compared to the id which is the unconscious part. There is a conflict between the id and the ego, because id wants fulfilment but ego postpones it to more appropriate time and place.
(c) The super ego It represents the societal and personal norms and serves as an ethical constraint of behaviour. It is best defined as conscience.
(ii) Socio-Psychological Theory This theory recognises the interdependence of society and individual. The individual strives to meet the needs of the society, while society tries to help the individual to attain his goals. Out of this interaction, the personality of an individual is determined. The managers can take cue from this theory in shaping behaviour of their employees.
(iii) Trait Factor Theory This theory proposes that an individual’s personality is composed of definite predisposition attributes, called traits. A trait is any distinguishable way, which makes one individual different from another. Two major contributors to this theory are Allport and Cattell.
(iv) Self-Theory Major contribution to this theory is from Carl Rogers. Other contributors are Maslow, Herzberg, Lewin, etc. Carl Rogers defines the self-concept as perceptions of ‘I’ and ‘Me’.
There are four factors of self-concept:
(a) Self-image It is the way one sees oneself.
(b) Ideal Self It denotes the way one would like to be.
(c) Looking Glass Self It is the perception of the person about how others are perceiving his qualities and characteristics.
(d) Real Self It is what one really is. In analyzing organisational behaviour, the self-concept plays a significant role. It means people with different self-concept needs different managerial practices.
Learning is a relatively enduring change in behaviour due to experience. There are four important points:
(i) Learning involves change in behaviour, which can be improved behaviour, as well as adoption of bad habits, stereotypes, etc.
(ii) The change is relatively permanent.
(iii) The behavioural change must be based on some form of practice or experience.
(iv) The practice or experience must be reinforced for learning, otherwise learning will disappear.
Learning Theories
Two major theories of learning are:
(i) Classical Conditioning This theory states that behaviour is learned by repetitive association between stimulus and a response. Ivan Pavlov, a famous psychologist, did an experiment on the dog. First, he noticed that on presenting a piece of meat, the dog salivated.
On the other hand, the dog did not secrete saliva just on the ringing of the bell. Then, he associated meat with ringing of bell. On repeating it many times, the dog salivated with just ringing of the bell. So, the dog was conditioned and this behaviour is a conditioned response. Classical conditioning response is important for understanding human behaviour, since high order conditioning is important for learning by human beings. This theory has a drawback, that it only shows reflexive behaviour.
(ii) Operant Conditioning Operant is defined as a behaviour that produces effects. This theory suggests that people emit responses that are rewarded and will not emit responses that are not rewarded or punished.
Management can use the operant conditioning process successfully to control and influence the behaviour of employees by manipulating the reward system.
15.1.2 Other important Concept of Organisational Behaviour
Perception
Perception is an important cognitive process deciding how a person will behave. Through this complex process people interpret the world to themselves. Perception is a unique phenomenon, influencing people behave differently.
Perception is defined as a process by which individuals organise and interpret their sensory impression in order to give meaning to their environment. Robbins
Importance of Perception in OB
We need to understand what the role of perception in an organisation is. It is very important in establishing different role of perceptions like.
For example, every member in a group has to be clear regarding the role allotted to them. Programmer writes the code, tester checks it, etc.
Sub-Processes involved is Perception
Perceptual Process
Perceptual process is mainly comprised of five processes.
These process are influenced by perceiver and the situation these are
15.2 Motivation
The term ‘motivation’ has been derived from the word ‘motive’. Motive is anything that initiates activity. In fact, b behind all the activities of humans, there is a particular motive or need. A need can be defined as feeling of lackness for something and human being tries (activities) to get that lackness removed (satisfaction).
Thus, human behaviour (activities) is caused by motives or needs and motivation is the process of inducing persons to experience needs for certain desired behaviour, so that organisational efficiency is achieved.
According to Koontz and O’ Donnell, ‘Motivation is a general term applying to the entire class of drives, desires, needs, wishes and similar forces that induce an individual or a group of people to work’.
15.2.1 Major Theories of Motivation
Various theories have been developed which explain, how human behaviour is affected.
The theories are classified into two categories, which are as follows:
Content theories of motivation are discussed below:
(i) Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory
AH Maslow, an eminent American psychologist, has advanced a theory based on structure of human needs, known as Maslow’s need hierarchy.
According to Abraham Maslow, there seems to be a hierarchy into which human needs are arranged.
The needs involved in Maslow’s need hierarchy are:
(a) Basic Physiological Needs These needs include needs for food, water, clothing, shelter, rest and other similar requirements. These needs are common to all individuals and are necessary for survival.
(b) Security/Safety Needs These needs can be of three types, viz economic, physical and social. Economic security may be for job security. Physical safety needs may include protection against fire, accidents, etc. Social security needs may be for security in old age, etc.
(c) Affiliation/Belonging/Social Needs Man being a social being, is interested in sociability, love, care and affection, belongingness to the work group, etc.
(d) Ego/Esteem Needs These needs include self-confidence, dependence, respect and recognition, etc.
(e) Self-Actualisation/Self-Realisation Needs Some people (not necessarily all) have a desire to develop themselves to the fullest extent, by realising or exploiting their potential or capabilities maximally.
(ii) Herzberg’s Two Factors Theory of Motivation
It is based on his research conducted among 200 accountants and engineers working in Pittsburg area, USA. This theory is also known as motivation-hygiene theory.
It proposes that satisfaction and dissatisfaction result from two different set of factors viz hygienic and motivational factors. Factors that prevent dissatisfaction are known as hygienic factors. Factors that have positive effect on job satisfaction are known as motivational factors.
|
Herzberg’s Motivational and Hygienic Factors
Motivational Factors/Satisfiers · Achievement · Recognition · Responsibility · Advancement · Opportunity · Work itself
Hygienic Factors
· Company policy and administration · Wages and salaries · Working conditions · Job security · Status · Personal life · Interpersonal relations with peers · Interpersonal relations with supervisors · Interpersonal relations with subordinates · Technical supervision |
(iii) Me Gregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
Douglas Me Gregor developed two sets of assumptions about human behaviour, naming it as theory X and theory
Table 12.3 Assumptions of Me Gregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
|
Theory X |
Theory Y |
|
An average man is by nature indolent. He works as little as possible. |
People like work, which is natural like playing. |
|
People lack ambition, dislike responsibility, |
People like to take initiative. They seek self-direction and self-control. |
|
People avoid responsibility, whenever possible. |
People assume responsibility gladly in favourable conditions. |
|
People must be supervised strictly. |
People do not need dose and strict supervision: |
|
Autocratic style of leadership is more effective. |
Democratic style of leadership is more effective. |
|
People lack self-motivation. |
People are self-motivated. |
|
People have limited potential of capabilities. |
People have unlimited potential of capabilities. |
|
People lack creativity and imagination. |
People possess creativity and imagination. |
(iv) William Ouchi’s Theory Z
William Ouchi made a comparative study of the Japanese and the American management practices and put forward a theory, called theory Z. Z does not stand for anything but the last letter of the alphabet. Theory Z is based on four postulates:
(a) Strong bond between organisation and employees
(b) Mutual trust and openness
(c) Collective decision-making
(d) No formal structure
Theory Z is a comprehensive philosophy of management. It is not merely a technique of motivation. Rather, it is an amalgamation of techniques and principles of management to obtain maximum cooperation of employees.
(v) Mcclelland’s Needs Theory
David Mcclelland explained the significance of three basic needs that play a major role in the motivation of individuals. They are as follows:
(a) Achievement Needs People with high need for achievement are highly responsible, innovative and high achieving. They are motivated by challenging assignments.
(b) Affiliation Needs People with a need for affiliation, have a strong desire for interpersonal relationships.
(c) Power Needs People with need for power have a desire for power and prefer to control situations that they come across.
(vi) Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Clayton Alderfer proposed the ERG theory, which is considered as the extension of Herzberg’s two factor theory. Alderfer characterised needs into three groups, namely:
(a) Existence Needs These are basic needs and similar to Maslow’s basic physiological needs.
(b) Relatedness Needs These are social needs of individuals such as need to belong.
(c) Growth needs They deal with development of individuals towards excelling in the specific fields of their interest.
These theories focus on the dynamics of motivation. These are also known as cognitive theories, due to their focus on the thought processes associated with motivation.
There are three process theories of motivation, which are as follows:
(i) Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
Victor H Vroom proposed the expectancy theory of motivation. This theory comprised of the key concepts of:
(a) Valence The person can be motivated towards a goal or objective by the valence for a particular outcome or reward. The valence is set in the range of + 1, through 0 to -1.
(b) Expectancy It refers to the probability that certain efforts will lead to the required performance.
Expectancy ranges between 0 and 1.
(c) Instrumentality It refers to the probability that successful performance will lead to certain outcomes. It ranges from 0 to 1 in magnitude. The relationship is expressed as:
(ii) Porter-Lawler Model
This model was developed by Lyman W Porter and Edward E Lawler III. This theory proposed that performance did not result from the satisfaction of an individual but performance could lead to satisfaction through reward process.
(iii) Equity Theory
This theory was formulated by J Stacy Adams. The theory was based on two variables viz inputs and outcomes.
Inputs include efforts, experience and education. Outcomes may be pay, bonus, appreciation, etc. An individual may be dissatisfied, if the outcomes do not match his inputs. The performance will be same, if he thinks he has been equitably rewarded. But when the individual perceives that his rewards are more than inputs, he will put in more efforts.
15.3 Leadership
It is the art of influencing the behaviour and performance of followers (i.e. subordinates) towards the attainment of objectives.
According to Keith Davis, ‘Leadership is the ability to persuade others to seek defined objectives enthusiastically. It is human factor which finds a group together and motivates it towards goals’.
Qualities of Good Leader
A good leader should possess the following qualities.
15.3.1 Leadership Styles
They refer to the behaviour pattern which a leader exhibits while leading. The leadership style is determined by his personality, experience and value system.
Major leadership styles are:
(i) Autocratic Leadership Style
This style is also known as authoritarian or dictatorial leadership style. Under this, the leader gives orders, which must be obeyed by subordinates. He takes all the decisions himself without consulting others.
(ii) Democratic or Participative Leadership Style
A democratic leader believes in decentralisation of power and consults others before taking decision. This style of leadership is often adopted by the chief executive of a business organisation, while discussing major organisational objectives, strategies and other key issues.
(iii) Laissez-faire or Free Rein Leadership Style
A free rein leader leaves the group entirely to itself. He depends largely upon the group to establish its own goals and workout its own problems. The leader only plays a supervisory role over their functions.
This style of leadership is followed in circumstances, where subordinates are educated and skilled and understand well, as how to do their jobs independently.
(iv) Paternalistic Leadership Style
Under this style of leadership, leader plays a ‘father-like’ role towards the followers and takes care of their problems.
This type of leadership is the major characteristic of Japanese management.
15.3.2 Leadership Theories
Leadership theories can be classified into following categories:
(i) Personality Theories
Major personality theories are:
(a) Trait Theory This theory proposes that leaders possess certain inborn personality traits and some of such traits could be acquired by a person through education, training and experience. The trait theory losts its significance, as it was unable to explain the lack of certain traits in leaders.
(b) Great Man Theory According to this theory, leaders are born and not made. However, with the emergence of behavioural theories, great man theory losts its significance.
(ii) Behavioural Theories
These theories are concerned with the behavioural aspects of leaders.
(a) IOWA University Studies The University of IOWA identified three leadership styles:
(b) Likert’s Four Systems of Management Rensis Likert and his associates at Michigan University studied various styles of leaders and developed four systems of management:
(c) The Managerial Grid This was developed by Robert Blake and Jane Srygley Mouton. The grid describes various leadership styles exhibited by managers. Here, the managerial behaviour is a function of two variables, i.e. concern for people and concern for production.
(iii) Situation Theories
Single leadership style was not suitable for all situations. This led to development of situation or contingency theories.
The popular situation theories are:
(a) Fiedler’s Contingency Theory Fiedler considered three dimensions of the leadership situation. They are:
He identified two leadership styles:
(b) Leadership Continuum Theory This theory has been developed by Tannebaum and Schmidt.
This theory suggests seven leadership styles from boss-centred to subordinate-centred. They are:
The Fig. 12.9 illustrates the leadership continuum concept.
The continuum theory suggests that there is no best style of leadership suitable under all situations. It shows style 1 (boss-centred) to style 7 (subordinate-centred).
(iv) Transformational Theory
Bernard M Bass described transformational leader as a motivating and inspiring person, who encourages his followers to achieve intrinsic higher level goals, resulting in exceptional performance. He identified three characteristics:
15.4 Communication
Communication can be defined as a process of exchange of ideas, facts, feelings, views between two or more people to create common understanding.
15.4.1 Communication Process
The communication process requires atleast two parties for exchange of information, ideas, opinions, etc. The key elements in the communication process are
(i) Sender He initiates the process by developing an idea or message.
(ii) Message It is the subject matter of communication. It exists in the mind of the sender.
(iii) Encoding It is a process of translating the message into verbal or non-verbal language, so as to make the receiver understand the message.
(iv) Channel or Medium The encoded message is transmitted through some medium, which is known as communication channel. It can be face-to-face by telephone, mail or by other means according to situation.
(v) Decoding It means interpretation of message by the receiver.
(vi) Noise It is the disturbance which obstructs the smooth flow of communication. It may be poor network, inattention of the receiver etc.
(vii) Receiver He is the person who receives the message and decodes it to understand it.
(viii) Feedback Feedback is the response or reply that receiver gives to assure the sender that he has understood the message.
15.4.2 Types of Communication
(i) Formal Communication It refers to communication taking place through official channels in an organisation. Such type of communication takes place between managers and employees.
Further formal communication has also three types
(a) Downward Communication It refers to the flow of communication from superior to subordinates. This type of communication is used to make aware the employees about policies, procedures, objectives etc. It can be in form of handbook, organisational manuals, annual reports etc.
(b) Upward Communication It refers to flow of information from lower levels to the higher levels in the organisational hierarchy. This type of communication helps managers to understand performance of employees, their problems etc. It takes place in form of performance reports, morale questionnaires, grievance redressal procedure etc.
(c) Cross-wise Communication It is of two types
It refers to flow of communication at the same level of organisational hierarchy.
It refers to communication flow at different levels in the hierarchy.
(ii) Informal Communication Communication that takes place without following the formal lines of communication is said to be informal communication. It is also referred to as ‘grapevine’ because it spreads throughout the organisation, with its branches in all directions without following the standard route of communication.
Communication Networks: Formal and Informal
The pattern through which communication flows within an organisation is indicated through a communication network. Different types of network operate both in formal and informal organisation.
(i) Chain Network It is the scalar chain network, which exists between the superior and subordinates, through a single line of command
(ii) Wheel Network In a wheel, there is one central authority who acts as a hub and all can communicate through him only.
(iii) Circular Network In this network, a person can communicate with two persons, i.e., one on left and one on right.
(iv) Free Flow Network In this network, all members can talk to each other freely.
(v) Inverted Network In this type of network, a subordinate is allowed to communicate to his superior as well as his superior’s superior.
Various informal communication networks are
(i) Single Strand Network In this, each person communicates to other in a sequence, till the last man in the strand. The pattern is from A B C D to the last man.
(ii) Gossip/Leisure Time Gathering Network It generally takes place during leisure time, e.g., tea break, lunch time, etc. In this, each person communicates with all on a non-selective basis.
(iii) Casual Restricted Network In this type of network, people tell news and other messages to people only known to him.
(iv) Probability Network In probability network, an individual communicates with other individual in a random manner and those who receive message also pass on the information in random manner.
(v) Cluster Chain Network In this type of network, one person transfers information to a group of persons, whom he trust. In this, some people keep the information to themselves, while other transfers to other group. A gives information to B, C and D, B and C don’t pass it on, while D transmits it to E, F and G.
(vi) Clique-to-clique Network A clique is a small group of persons, who do not want others to enter their group. In clique-to-clique communication, one person tells something to all in a clique. One member may be also a member of another clique. This member tells to the other clique. In this way, the information is passed to many.
15.4.3 Barriers to Communication
Many a times, the communication process is hampered and the correct message is not transmitted, thus, leading to operational inefficiency of the organisation. Barriers to communication may be broadly grouped into
(i) Organisational Barriers Organisation structure and policies, many a times lead to communication delays and distortions. The major reasons of such barriers are
(a) Lengthy scalar chain (b) Centralised organizational policy (c) Too wide span of management
(d) Lack of adequate communicational facilities (e) Organisational facilities drawbacks.
(ii) Semantic or Linguistic Barriers Some linguistic barriers, i.e., related to language of communication are
(a) Badly expressed message (b) Technical language (c) Unclarified assumptions (d) Body language and gestures (e) Vague language
(iii) Psychological Barriers The mental state and psychological factors often create communication barriers. These may be
(a) Lack of attention (b) Premature evaluation (c) Loss by transmission and poor retention (d) Distrust
(iv) Personal Barriers Both sender and receiver might have some personal factors which affect the communication process, such as
(a) Fear to challenge the authority (b) Fear of superiors (c) Lack of confidence
Measures to Overcome communication Barriers
15.5 Group Dynamics
Group dynamics encompasses the dynamics of interaction pattern within the group, the manner in which decisions are made in the group, how work gets done, and how member’s needs are satisfied.
The interactions that influence the attitudes and behaviour of people when they are grouped with others through either choice or accidental circumstances. The group dynamics include both the group content and the group processes.
Objectives of Group Dynamics
You need to login to perform this action.
You will be redirected in
3 sec
