Earth as
Part of the Solar SystemSummary 1.The universe is the vast space around us which
includes stars, planets, satellites, etc. 2.Stars are giant balls of gases in space. 3.Stars occur in groups that make an imaginary shape in
the night sky called constellations. 4.The sun is a star of medium size. 5.The sun and eight planets orbiting around it consists
the Solar System.6.The eight planets are: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars,
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. 7.The Earth is the third planet from the Sun and is so
far the only planet with life on it. 8.Life is possible on the Earth because (a) it is at
the right distance from the Sun, so it is neither too hot nor too cold; (b) it
has oxygen which is a lifeline for living organisms; and (c) it has water. 9.Meteors or shooting stars are produced when chunks of
rocks enter the Earth?s atmosphere and burn us in a fiery show. 10.Comets revolve around the Sun in elliptical orbits. They
have a bright tail. Ever since ancient times, man has
been gazing at the night sky and wondering about the Moon and the stars shining
above. The colourful rainbow, the twilight sky, and the eclipses of the Sun and
the Moon?all have bewildered man and kindled his eagerness to know about them.
What are these shinning bodies? How far are they from us? Why do they shine?
What is this celestial body on which we live? There are endless queries in our
minds. During the last fifty-odd years, spacecrafts, sky labs, artificial
satellites and various probes have been sent to get information as answers to
these queries. The natural bodies in the sky that
include the Sun, the Moon, the stars, and many other objects are called
celestial bodies or heavenly bodies. The Earth, on which you live is also a
heavenly body. The heavenly bodies are found in more...
Development in Art and ArchitectureSummary 1.India?s
rich cultural heritage is the crowning glory of the Indian civilisation.2.A
stupa is a domed building which houses Buddhist relics.3.Many
temples were built in India. The three main components of the temples were Garbagriha,
mandapa and shikhar.4.Beautiful
paintings called murals adorn the walls, ceilings and pillars of the Ajanta
Caves. The technique of painting is known as fresco-secco.5.Our
heritage includes many great literary works which serve as important sources of
study of ancient India. The Mahabharata and Ramayana are some
examples.6.Panchtantra
and Jataka Tales are short stories with moral lessons from everyday
life.7.Jain
and Buddhist monks also contributed to Tamil literature. There are five great
Tamil epics.8.The
earliest known historical astronomer is Aryabhatta.9.Charaka
Samhita
and Sushruta Samhita are ancient texts on medicine.Indian?s rich culture is the crowning
glory of Indian civilisation. The multitude of literary works and the
magnificent architecture of ancient India are testimony to India?s\[legac{{y}^{1}}\].
Numerous monuments all over the country stand witness to the glory of India.
There is voluminous wisdom and knowledge in the literary tradition. These are
important sources of history and help us to reconstruct and understand the
past.INDIAN ARCHITECTURE THE IRON PILLARHave you seen or heard about the
iron pillar at Mehrauli in Delhi. It was made about 1500 years ago and has not
rusted till now. This tells us about the remarkable metallurgical skills of the
Indian craftsmen in ancient times. The Iron Pillar is about 22 ft. high and
weighs 6 tons. It is said to have been built at the time of Chandragupta
Vikramaditya. It has a Sanskrit inscription in Brahmi script. It mentions a
king named Chandra who is probably Chandragupta II of the Gupta dynasty.STUPAS The word stupa literally means 'a
heap7. A stupa is a domed building which houses Buddhist relics. These can be
bones, ashes more...
New
Empires and KingdomsSummary1.After
a gap of many years, a large part of India was united under the rule of the
Gupta dynasty.2.Chandragupta
I was the first important king. He was succeeded by his son Samudragupta.3.Allahabad
Prashasti is one of the most important sources of information. It was
engraved on the Ashokan pillar in Kausambi near Allahabad.4.The
glory of the Gupta Empire reached its pinnacle under Chandragupta II, who took
the title of Vikramaditya.5.The
Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hein visited India during the reign of Chandragupta II. His
book is a valuable source of information about the Gupta reign.6.Harshavardhana
built a strong empire after the downfall of the Guptas.7.The
Chalukyas were a powerful dynasty ruling in the region between the River
Krishna and the Vindhyan Mountains.8.Pulakeshin
II was the most outstanding of the Chalukya rulers. He defeated Harshavardhana.9.The
Pallavas established their kingdom that extended from Northern Orissa to
Tanjore in the south.10.Narasimhavarman
of the Pallava dynasty defeated Pulakeshin II.Starting 320 CE to 550 CE, the
Indian subcontinent witnessed one dynasty rise which set the model of a
classical civilisation. The period was marked by extensive inventions and
discoveries in science, technology, engineering, art, literature, logic,
mathematics, astronomy and philosophy. Historians have therefore named this
period as the Golden Age of Indian History.PRASHASTIHave you ever heard of a
Prashasti7 In Sanskrit, the word means 'in praise of. These were composed in
praise of some ruler. There is a famous Allahabad Prashasti. It is a stone
pillar inscription. It was engraved on the Ashokan pillar in Kausambi near Allahabad.
It is one of the most important sources of information about Samudragupta who
was a famous ruler of the Gupta dynasty. It was composed by Harisena, the court
poet and minister of Samudragupta in the 4th century CE.WHAT THE ALLAHABAD PRASHASTI TELLS
USThe Prashasti more...
Contact With Distant LandsSummary1.After
the collapse of the Mauryan Empire, several small kingdoms came up. The most
important development was the arrival of foreign tribal groups in India.2.The
important kingdoms of the south were Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas. These three
southern kingdoms were in constant conflict for supremacy.3.Another
kingdom ruled by the Satavahana Dynasty rose to power in 200 BCE. They occupied
a large part of central India known as dakshinapatha.4.The
route through which silk was taken to the west came to be known as the Silk
Route.5.Kanishka
was a great Kushana ruler. He took every step to spread Buddhism. He built many
stupas and viharas. He propagated Buddhism to distant countries.6.Many
pilgrims also travelled along the Silk Route to India.7.Fa-Hein
was a Chinese pilgrim who came to India in 399 CE in search of the complete
copies of Vinaya Pitaka. He recorded his travels in ?Travels of Fa-Hein?.8.Hieun
Tsang came in the 7th century CE and collected authentic Buddhist scriptures.
He witnessed the Buddhist assemblies at Prayag and Kanauj. He recorded his
experiences in Si-yu-ki.9.During
this period, the bhakti cult was gradually becoming popular.Did you ever imagine that more
than 2,000 years ago, people from distant lands as far as Greece would come to
India there were no airplanes, no trains and no motor vehicles? Well Alexander
did, long journeys motivated by a desire to conquer foreign lands. Enthused
with adventures form a big slice of man?s history. Let us see how these
journeys and eventually the contacts with distant lands shaped and affect
history. After the collapse of the Mauryan
Empire, several small kingdoms came up. The most important development was the
arrival of foreign tribal groups in India. The Indo- Greeks conquered much of
northern India including parts of Uttar Pradesh. The most famous rules was
Menander I. He converted to Buddhism. The Indo-Greeks issued coins, the first
of which were minted under Menander I.The
Second UrbanisationSummary1.From
the 1st century BCE to about 4th century CE, India underwent huge
transformation.2.During
this period, there was a spurt in agricultural production which led to the
emergence of many towns and cities.3.This
phase also opened up a network of internal and overseas trade routes.4.It
saw the introduction of currency and witnessed the development of numerous arts
and crafts including ceramics.5.Archaeologists
have found thousands of coins made of copper or silver with the design punched
on the metal. These are called punch marked coins.6.Pottery
of a different kind has been found. This pottery is called Northern Black
Polished Ware.7.Craftsmen
and artisans formed associations called guilds or shrenis. The enormous
manufacturing activity was maintained by these guilds.8.Arikamedu
was a very important trading centre and port.From the 1st century BCE to about
the 4th century CE, India underwent huge transformation. During this
period, iron was widely used. This period is known as the 'second
urbanisation?. During this period, there was a
spurt in agricultural production which led to the emergence of many towns and
cities. This phase also opened up a network of internal and overseas trade
routes. It saw the introduction of currency and witnessed the development of
numerous arts and crafts including ceramics.INCREASE IN AGRICULTURAL
PRODUCTIONThere
were many factors which led to the increase in agricultural production. These
were: ? Introduction of Iron
Technology: Iron came into use in India in about 1000 BCE. It was
increasingly used after 500 BCE. The use of iron was of vital importance for
the expansion of agriculture. Iron axes were now used in clearing thick forests
and iron-tipped ploughshares ploughed the land better.? Better Irrigation: This
was essential for better productivity. The kings funded the digging of canals,
wells, tanks and artificial lakes. This was also done with the help of iron
tools.? Better Agricultural
Techniques: Farmers began to use the method of transplantation in which the
seeds were first more...
Ashoka
the GreatSummary1.The
foundation of the first empire in India was laid by the Mauryan Dynasty in
Magadha. Chandragupta Mauraya was the first ruler of the dynasty.2.Megasthenes
in his book Indica and Chanakya in Arthashastra have given
detailed accounts of the administrative, political, economic and military
system of the Mauryan Empire.3.Ashoka
is regarded as one of the greatest rulers of the world.4.He
waged a war on Kalinga and this war changed him from a great warrior to a great
advocate of peace. He gave up warfare forever.5.Ashoka
became an ardent follower of the Buddha?s teachings and spared no effort in
propagating them.6.Most
of Ashoka?s edicts are about dhamma which was a code of conduct and a
way of life.7.The
Mauryan Empire comprised of four provinces. The provincial government was under
the control of the princes.8.The
Mauryan Emperors had a good network of spies.9.The
Mauryan art and architecture was quite advanced. It is reflected in Ashokan
pillars, stupas etc.10.The
Mauryan Empire began to decline after the death of Ashoka.Do you know what an empire is? How
is it different from a kingdom? Have you ever wondered who built the first
empire in India? Let us explore in this chapter.RISE OF THE FIRST EMPIRE IN INDIAThe foundation of the first empire
in India was laid by the Mauryan Dynasty in Magadha. The Mauryan dynasty had
three great emperors? Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara and Ashoka.Chandragupta Maurya laid the
foundation of India's first empire in Magadha in 321 BCE. He met Chanakya (also
known as Kautilya) who was a wise and shrewd Brahmin. With his help,
Chandragupta laid the foundation of a strong empire.The empire stretched from Bengal
and Assam in the east to Afghanistan and Baluchistan in the west and Kashmir
and Nepal in the north to the Deccan Plateau in the south. It included large
cities like Pataliputra and more...
New Thoughts - Evolution of IdeasSummary 1.The
Upanishads are philosophical texts. They have the ideas and teachings of the
new thinkers.2.The
Upanishads are strongly opposed to rituals and sacrifices.3.Buddhism
is based on the teachings of Prince Siddharth. He achieved enlightenment and
came to be known as the Buddha.4.According
to Buddhist teachings, each person is born and reborn many times. The ultimate
freedom from this wheel of life is a state where there is no suffering and is
called nirvana.5.Jainism
was founded by Vardhamana Mahavira.6.Mahavira
strictly believed in non-violence. Jainism prescribes a path of non-violence
towards all living things. Even trees and stones have a soul.7.Both
Buddhism and Jainism established communities of monks and nuns called sangha
to spread their teachings.8.Both
Buddhism and Jainism became popular because they were against the caste system
and did not believe in rituals and sacrifices.In the Later Vedic Age, ceremonies
and sacrifices became increasingly complicated. The caste system led to
differences amongst the people. People were dissatisfied and began thinking.
What was the meaning of all these rituals? What right did the brahmins have to
claim themselves as superior to the rest. This spirit of enquiry prevailed
towards the end of the later Vedic period.THE UPANISHADSUpanishad is a Sanskrit word
meaning sitting down near a teacher to receive instruction. In ancient times,
the pupils sat near the guru to receive knowledge from him. The Upanishads are
part of the Later Vedic literature(lOOO-600 BCE)During this time, there were many
unanswered Questions in the minds of the people. They discussed who had created
the world and why there was so much suffering in it. They wanted to know the
truth about God and the world They thought about the purpose of their
existence. They wanted to know the mysteries of life and what happened after
death. The ideas and teachings of these new thinkers are collected In books
known as the Upanishads.WHAT DO THEY TELL USEarly
Kingdoms and RepublicsSummary1.By the end of the Rig Vedic period, many territorial
states called janapadas arose as people stopped moving from one place to
another. These states became stronger and bigger and were called mahajanapadas.2.Buddhist texts tell us that there were 16 mahajanapadas.3.These mahajanapadas were either republican or
monarchial. In a republic (gana-sangha), the territory was governed by
an assembly and not a hereditary monarch.4.Important advancements in agriculture occurred which
led to increased agricultural production.5.The raja needed resources for maintaining an
army and also for fortifying the cities. So, the people had to pay taxes to the
king who appointed officials to collect them.6.Of all the mahajanapadas, Magadha came into
prominence. It became the seat of a powerful monarchy and the center of an
extensive empire.7.Magadha's favourable geographical location enabled it
to control the whole lower Gangetic plain.8.Vajji was a powerful republican state or gana-sangha.How many states does India have?
Maharashtra, Manipur, Himachal Pradesh, Tamil Nadu etc., are all states of
India and India has 29 states. But what exactly is a state? In social sciences,
a. state is defined as the political body of a centralised government
exercising its authority within a certain territory. In simple words, it is an
area of land (sometimes sea) controlled by a single, independent government.
So, is India a state? The answer is yes. India is a republic state. Let us find
out about the emergence of early forms of republic states in India.By the end of the Rig Vedic
period, the position of the ruler became very important. He was extremely
powerful and lived a luxurious life. We have read that earlier the rulers were
chosen by the jana. But by 1000 BCE, this trend was changing. Sometimes, a
person became a raja by performing the ashvamedha or horse sacrifice. The king who organised it was
considered very powerful. During this sacrifice, a special The
Vedic AgeSummary1.The
Aryans were nomadic people who came to India from the north-west.2.They
settled down and gradually took to agriculture.3.Our
knowledge of the Aryans comes from the Vedas.4.The
Rigveda gives information about the Early Vedic Age.5.The
period when the Aryans first settled in India is known as the Early Vedic Age
(1500 BCE to 1000 BCE).6.During
this period, the kingdoms were tribal in character.7.The
period between 1000 BCE to 600 BCE is known as the Later Vedic Age.8.The
king now became very powerful and the status of women declined.9.Megalithic
burials have been found in many places in India.10.Inamgoan
is believed to have been occupied from 1600 BCE to 700 BCE.Have you ever
heard or recited the Gayatri Mantra? It is from the oldest text in India called
the Rigveda. There are four Vedas. The Rigveda is the oldest among them. The
Vedic Age is the period during which the Vedas were composed. This period from
1500 BCE to 600 BCE, is often called the Vedic Age.Earlier, we have
read about the Harappan Civilisation. Slowly it declined and by around 1800
BCE, people again began living a simple life in villages. About this time, some
people entered India from the north-west. They called themselves 'Arya' meaning
'noble ones'. A new culture developed in India with the arrival of the Aryans.
They did not come to India to invade and plunder and go back. They settled down
in the plains and took to agriculture. They first settled in seven places in
the Punjab region which they called Sapta Sindhu. These Aryans who settled in
India are called Indo-Aryans.STUDY OF
VEDAS Our knowledge of the Aryans comes
from the Vedas. The Vedic Age gets its name from the four Vedas. Historians have
studied these texts carefully. They provide an insight into the life of the
Vedic Age.LANGUAGESThe Aryans spoke
a language more...
Early Cities in the Indian
SubcontinentSummary1.The Indus
Valley Civilisation is believed to have existed between 2500 BCE and 1700 BCE.2.Some
important sites of the civilisation are Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Kalibangan and
Dholavira.3.The cities
exhibit excellent planning. The drainage system was also hygienic and planned.4.There was
internal as well as external trade.5.The main
crops grown were wheat, barley and rice.6.The people
were skilled craftsmen.7.The cause
of its decline is not known. Many historians think it was natural disasters and
climate change that led to the decline of this civilisation.The
first civilisations came about in river valleys. The first four river valley
civilisations of the world were: Mesopotamia along the Tigris and Euphrates
rivers), China (along the River Hwang Ho), Egypt (along the Nile River) and
Indus Valley (along the Indus River). THE STORY OF HARAPPA AND
MOHENJODAROThe British were laying the
railway line connecting the cities of Karachi and Lahore in 1856. The labourers
once an out of bricks and used baked bricks from some ancient ruins near the
railway lines. These bricks were used to ake9 3 miles of railway track. It was
discovered only later that these bricks were almost 5000 years old! Alexander
Cunningham, the director of the Archaeological Survey of India visited this
place, Harappa in 1872. He found stone tools, seals and pottery of an ancient
civilisation. Also, nearby was a mound called "Mohenjodaro" meaning
'mound of the dead". Often children playing there found articles like
bangles, dices, broken clay toys etc. it was suspected that this place was once
inhabited by people. Excavations were started there and initially two cities
were discovered, Harappa and Mohenjodaro. These were called the Indus Valley
Civilisation. Harappa was Discovered first, so it is also called the Harappan
civilisation. This civilisation is believed to have existed between 2500 BCE to
about 1700 BCE.IMPORTANCE OF THE DISCOVERIESThe discovery of these two cities
changed the whole idea of how the Indian civilisation began. It was believed
that before the Aryans came to more...