UPSC Ecology And Environment Climate / जलवायु Notes - Climate Change

National Water Mission

Mission Objective: To conserve water, minimise wastage and ensure equitable distribution bath across and within states through integrated water resources development and management.

Mission Targets and Timeline: To achieve its objective, the mission targets are:

• Development of comprehensive water database in public domain and assessment of impact off climate change on water resources.
• Promotion of citizen and state actions for water conservation, augmentation and preservation.
• Focused attention to vulnerable areas including over-exploited areas.
• lncreasewateruseefficiencyby20%.
• Promotion of basin level integrated water resources management.

Budgetary Requirements and Allocations: The mission requires budgetary support of Rs.89,101 crore (approx. USD 14.4 billion) during the 11^th (2007-2012) and 12^th (2012-2017) five year plan periods. Proposals for Rs.196 crore (approx. USD 31.6 million) have been approved. Implementation Status: Key achievements to date:

• Revised National Water Policy (2012) adopted by National Water Resources Council.
• Created 1,082 new Ground Water Monitoring Wells.

Several capacity building and training programmes, are underway.

India's INDC: Climate Change Contributions

1. To put forward and further propagate a healthy and sustainable way of living based on traditions and values of conservation and moderation.
2. To adopt a climate friendly and cleaner path than the one hitherto followed by others at a corresponding level of economic development.
3. To reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP by 33 to 35% of the 2005 level by 2030.
4. To achieve about 40% cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel- based energy resources by 2030 with the help of transfer of technology and low cost international finance including from the Green Climate Fund (GCF)
5. To create an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of \[C{{O}_{2}}\] equivalent \[(C{{O}_{2}}eq.)\] through additional forest and tree cover by 2030.
6. To better adapt to climate change by enhancing investments in development programmes in sectors vulnerable to climate change, particularly agriculture, water resources, the Himalayan region, coastal regions, health and disaster management.
7. To mobilize domestic and new and additional funds from developed countries for implementing these mitigation and adaptation actions in view of the resources required and the resource gap.
8. To build capacities, create a domestic framework and an international architecture for quick diffusion of cutting-edge climate technology in India and for joint collaborative R&D for such future technologies.                      

Green Finance

The term 'green finance' has come in the view in the past few years with the increased focus on green development. The Rio+20 document clearly states what green economy policies should result in and what they should not. While there is no universal definition of green finance, it mostly refers to financial investments flowing towards sustainable development projects and initiatives that encourage the development of a more sustainable economy. Green finance includes different elements like greening the banking system, the bond market and institutional investment. Several working definitions and sets of criteria of green finance have also been developed. Examples include the China's Green Credit Guidelines, the Climate Bonds Taxonomy of Green Bonds, the International Development Finance Club's (IDFC) approach to reporting on green investment, the World Bank/International Finance Corporation's (IFC) Sustainability Framework and the UK Green Investment Bank Policies. An initial review of the current definitions in use reveals sizeable intersections

of the various definitions in thematic areas such as clean energy, energy efficiency, green buildings, sustainable transport, water and waste management, as well as areas of controversy such as nuclear and large-scale hydro energy, biofuels and efficiency gains in conventional power. Over the past decade there have been advances in mainstreaming of green finance within financial institutions and financial markets. Voluntary standards such as the Equator Principles have enhanced environmental risk management for many financial institutions. The World Bank Group has set up an informal "Sustainable Banking Network" of banking regulators, led by developing countries, to promote sustainable lending practices. In 2015, green bonds issued by governments, banks, corporates and individual projects amounted to US$42 billion. Globally, more than 20 stock exchanges have issued guidelines on environmental disclosure, and many green indices and green ETFs (exchange-traded funds) have been developed. The Financial Stability Board (FSB) has established a climate-related financial disclosures task force that was expected to complete its first stage of the work by end-March 2016. A growing number of institutions, including the Bank of England and Bank of China (Industrial and Commercial Bank of China; have begun to assess the financial impact of climate and environmental policy changes. Germany, the US and the UK have developed interest subsidy and guarantee programmes for green financing, and over a dozen government-backed green investment banks are operating globally. The G-20 has also recently set up a green finance study group (GFSG).

One topical issue in the context of green finance is that of enhancing the ability of the financial system to mobilize private green finance, thereby facilitating the green transformation of the global economy which has been widely discussed in different fora including the G20. However, for developing countries like India, private finance will not readily be forthcoming and public finance both international and domestic needs to be used to leverage private finance. Green development is also important for India though green finance is yet to pick up. Attaining the ambitious solar energy target, development of solar cities, setting up wind power projects, developing smart cities, providing infrastructure which is considered as a green activity and the sanitation drive under the 'Clean India' or 'Swach Bharath Abhiyan' are all activities needing green finance. India has created a corpus called the National Clean Energy Fund (NCEF) in 2010-11 out of the cess on coal produced/imported ('polluter pays' principle) for the purpose of financing and promoting clean energy initiatives and funding research in the area of clean energy. Some of the projects financed by this fund include innovative schemes like a green energy corridor for boosting the transmission sector, the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission's

(JNNSM) installation of solar photovoltaic (SPV) lights (see Figure 3 (b)) and small capacity lights, installation of SPiV water pumpwing systems, SPV power plants, grid-connected rooftop SPV (see Figure 3(c)) power plants and a pilot project to assess wind power potential. So far four banks have issued green bonds in India.

Figure 3 (a): Solar Power Budget in India

Figure 3 (b) SPV Power Plant at Goshen Drasskargil,

Jammu and Kashmir

+

Figure (c) Chinnaswamy Stadium, Bangalore with

Roof-Top Solar Panels

Figure 3 (d): Wind Energy Project in Madhya Pradesh

Proceeds from these bonds are mostly used for funding renewable energy projects such as solar, wind and biomass projects and other infrastructure sectors, with infrastructure and energy efficiency being considered as green in their entirety. The Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) has also recently approved the guidelines for green bonds. While mobilization and effective use of green finance is of primary importance, there are some issues which need to be taken note of:

• For a developing country like India, poverty alleviation and development are of vital importance and resources should not be diverted from meeting these development needs. Green finance should not be limited only to investment in renewable energy, as, for a country like India, coal based power accounts for around 60% of installed capacity. Emphasis should be on greening coal technology. In fact, green finance for development and transfer of green technology is important as most green technologies in developed countries are in the private domain and are subject to intellectual property rights (IPR), making them cost prohibitive.
• Green bonds are perceived as new and attach higher risk and their tenure is also shorter. There is a need to reduce risks to make them investment grade.
• There is also a need for an internationally agreed upon definition of green financing as its absence could lead to over-accounting.
• While environmental risk assessment is important, banks should not overestimate risks while providing green finance.
• Green finance should also consider unsustainable patterns of consumption as a parameter in deciding finance, particularly conspicuous consumption and unsustainable lifestyles in developed countries.

UN Climate Change Conference

Date and Place

Agenda

Decision/Resolution

COP 1

From 28

March to 7

April 1995

in Berlin,

Germany

·         It voiced concerns about the

adequacy of countries' abilities

to meet commitments under

the Body for Scientific and

Technological Advice (SBSTA)

and the Subsidiary Body for

Implementation (SBI).

·         COP 1 agreed on ?Activities Implemented Jointly? first joint measures in international climate action.

COP 2

July 1996 in Geneva, Switzerland

·         Its ministerial declaration was

noted (but not adopted) on

18 July 1996, and reflected a

United States position statement

presented by Timothy Wirth,

former Under Secretary for

Global Affairs for the United

States Department of State at that meeting.

·         Accepted the scientific findings on climate change preferred by the IPCC in its second assessment (1995).

·         Rejected uniform "harmonized policies" in favor of flexibility.

·         Called for "legally binding mid-term targets".

COP 3

December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan

The greenhouse gas emissions reduction Obligation

·         It adopted the Kyoto Protocol and outlined the greenhouse gas emissions reduction obligation for Annex I countries.

·         Kyoto mechanisms such as emissions trading, clean development mechanism and joint implementation.

·         Annex B countries agreed to legally binding reductions in greenhouse gas emissions of an average of 6 to 8% below 1990 levels between the years 2008-2012.

·         The United States would be required to reduce its total emissions on an average of 7% below 1990 levels.

COP 4

November 1998 in Buenos Aires

The unresolved issues in Kyoto would be finalized at this meeting.

·         The parties adopted a 2-year "Plan of Action" to advance efforts and to devise mechanisms for implementing the Kyoto Protocol, to be completed by 2000.

·         Argentina and Kazakhstan expressed their commitment to take on the greenhouse gas emissions reduction obligation, the first two non-Annex countries to do so.

COP 5

From 25

October to

5 November

1999, in

Bonn,

Germany

Only a Primary a technical meeting

No major conclusion.

COP 6

From 13 November to 25 November 2000, in The Hague, Netherlands.

·        High-level negotiation over the major political issues.

·        The United States' proposal to allow credit for carbon "sinks" in forests and agricultural lands.

·        How   developing   countries could obtain financial assistance to deal with adverse effects of climate change and meet their obligations to plan for measuring and possibly reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

·         Disagreements over consequences tor non-compliance by countries that did not meet their emission reduction targets.

·         Compromises agreed between the United States and some EU countries.

·         Rejected the compromise positions.

·         The talks in The Hague collapsed.

·         Jan Pronk, the President of COP 6, suspended COP-6 without agreement while it was later announced that the COP 6 meetings (termed "COP 6 bis") would be resumed in Bonn, Germany, in the second half of July._____

COP 6

Negotiation resumed)

From 17 July to 27 July 2001 in Bonn, Germany

·         Flexible mechanism

·         Joint implementation

·         Clean Development Mechanism

·         Carbon sinks

·         Compliance

·         Financing

·         It was agreed that' credit would be granted for broad activities that absorb carbon from the atmosphere or store it, including forest and cropland management, and re-vegetation, with no over-all cap on the amount of credit that a country could claim for sinks activities.

·         A cap of 13 million tons could be credited to Japan (which represents about 4 % of its base-year emissions).

·         For cropland management, countries could receive credit only for carbon sequestration increases above 1990 levels.

·         Inclusion of broad outlines of consequences for failing to meet emissions targets that would include a requirement to "make up" shortfalls at 1.3 tons to 1, suspension of the right to sell credits for surplus emissions reductions, and a required compliance action plan for those not meeting their targets.

COP 7

From 29 October to 10 November 2001 in Marrakech, Morocco

·         To work on the Buenos Aires

Plan of Action.

·         Finalising most of the operational details.

·         Setting the Stage for nations to ratify the Kyoto Protocol.

·         Operational rules for international emissions trading among parties to the Protocol and for the CDM and joint implementation;

·         A compliance regime that outlined consequences for failure to meet emissions targets but deferred to the parties to the Protocol, once it came into force, the decision on whether those consequences would be legally binding;

·         Accounting procedures for the flexibility mechanisms;

·         A decision to consider at COP 8 how to achieve a review of the adequacy of commitments that might lead to discussions on future commitments by developing countries.

COP 8

From 23

October to

1 November

2002 in New

Delhi

Agenda mostly of second-order and technical issues

·         Adopted the Delhi Ministerial Declaration on Climate Change and Sustainable Development.

·         Adopted rules of procedure for the executive board of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM).

·         Completed work on the reporting required of developed countries to assess their compliance under the Kyoto Protocol.

·         Adopted guidance to the Global Environment Facility (GEF) for managing two new funds established at COP-7 to assist developing countries.

·         Adopted new guidelines for national communications to be submitted by developing countries reporting on their emissions and steps they are taking to meet their commitments under the Framework Convention.

·         Requested the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and the Montreal Protocol's Technological and Economic Assessment Panel to conduct a special report on the question of HFCs/PFCs - compounds that have replaced ozone-depleting substances but contribute to climate change.

COP 9

From 1 December to 12 December 2003 in Milan, Italy

·         Agricultural biodiversity

·         Global  Strategy  for  Plant

·         Conservation

·         Invasive Alien Species

·         Forest Diversity

·         Incentive Measures

·         Ecosystem Approach

The parties agreed to use the Adaptation Fund established at COP7 in 2001 primarily in supporting developing countries better adapt to climate change. The fund would also be used for capacity-building through technology transfer. The parties also agreed to review the first national reports submitted by 110 non-Annex I countries.

COP 10

From 9 December 2004 in Buenos Aires, Argentina

·         Organizational matters.

·         Consideration of reports.

·         Access and benefit sharing.

·         Strategic issues for evaluating progress    and    supporting implementation.

·         Issues for in-depth consideration

·         Other substantive issues arising from decisions of the conference of the parties.

·         Administrative and budgetary matters.

·         Buenos Aires programme of work on adaptation and response measures.

·         Capacity-building for developing countries (non-Annex I Parties).

·         Capacity-building for countries with economies in transition.

·         Work of the Least Developed Countries Expert Group.

·         Implementation of the global observing system for climate.

·         Development and transfer of technologies.

·         Status of, and ways to enhance, implementation of the New Delhi work programme on Article 6 of the Convention.         

COP 11

From 28

November

and 9

December

2005, in

Montreal,

Quebec,

Canada

·         Capacity building.

·         Development and transfer of technologies.

·         The adverse effects of climate change on developing and least developed countries.

·         The several financial and budget-related issues including guidelines   to   the   global environment facility (gef).

Expression of gratitude to the Government of Canada and the people of the city of Montreal.

COP 12

From 6

November

to 17

November

2006m

I Nairobi,

Kenya

·         It was designed to mitigate climate   change   and   help countries adapt to the effects.

·         Expression of gratitude to the Government of Kenya and the people of the city of Nairobi.

COP 13

From 3

December 17

December

2007,at

Nusa Dua,

in Bali,

Indonesia

·         Adaptation Fund.

·         Further guidance relating to the clean development mechanism.

·         Guidance on the implementation of Article 6 of the Kyoto Protocol.

·         Scope and content of the second review of the Kyoto Protocol pursuant to its Article 9.

·         Compliance under the Kyoto Protocol.

·         Good practice guidance for land use, land-use change and forestry activities under Article 3, paragraphs 3 and 4, of the Kyoto Protocol.

·         Agreement on a timeline and structured negotiation on the post-2012 framework (the end of the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol) was achieved with the adoption of the Bali Action Plan.

·         The Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention (AWG-LCA) was established as a new subsidiary body to conduct the negotiations aimed at urgently enhancing the implementation of the Convention up to and beyond 2012.

COP 14

From 1

December to

12 December

2008m

Poznan,

Poland

·         Election of the President of the Conference at its fourteenth session.

·         Adoption of the rules of procedure.

·         Adoption of the agenda.

·         Election of officers other than the President.

·         Admission of organizations as observers.

·         Review of implementation of commitments and of other provisions of the Convention.

·         Delegates agreed on principles for the financing of a fund to help the poorest nations cope with the effects of climate change and they approved a mechanism to incorporate forest protection into the efforts of the international community to combat climate change.

·         Expression of gratitude to the Government of the Republic of Poland and the people of the city of Poznan.                                       

COP 15

From 7

December to

18 December

2009 in in

Copenhagen,

Denmark

·         Financial mechanism of the Convention.

·         National communications.

·         Capacity-building under the Convention.

·         Development and transfer of technologies.

·         Reducing   emissions   from deforestation   in developing countries:    approaches    to stimulate action.

·         Other matters referred to the Conference of the Parties by the subsidiary bodies

·         Outcome of the work of the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention.

·         Copenhagen Accord.

·         Amendment to Annex I to the Convention.

·         Methodological guidance for activities relating to reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries.

·         Work of the Consultative Group of Experts on National Communications from Parties not included in Annex I to the Convention.

·         Expression of gratitude to the Government of the Kingdom of Denmark and the people of the city of Copenhagen

COP 16

From 28

November to

10 December

2010 in

Cancun,

Mexico

·         Financial mechanism of the Convention.

·         National communications.

·         Development and transfer of technologies.

·         Capacity-building under the Convention.

·         Implementation of Article 4, paragraphs 8 and 9, of the Convention.

·         Article 6 of the Convention.

·         Other matters referred to the Conference of the Parties by the subsidiary bodies.

·         Parties agreed to: commit to a maximum temperature rise of 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels; make fully operational by 2012 a technology mechanism to boost the development and spread of new climate-friendly technologies; establish a Green Climate Fund to provide financing for action in developing countries via thematic funding windows.

·         They also agreed on a new Cancun Adaptation Framework, which included setting up an Adaptation Committee to promote strong, cohesive action on adaptation.

COP 17

From 28

November to

9 December

2011 in

Durban,

South Africa

·         Financial mechanism of the Convention.

·         National communications.

·         Development and transfer of technologies.

·         Equitable access to sustainable development.

·         Unilateral trade measures.

·         Accelerated access to critical mitigation   and   adaptation technologies    and    related

intellectual property rights

Adoption of the report of the Conference of the Parties on its seventeenth session.

COP 18

From 26

November to

7 December

2012 in

Doha, Qatar

·         Article 17 of the Convention contains procedures for the adoption of protocols to the Convention.

·         In accordance with Article 17, Parties have submitted six proposals.

·         Five proposals were submitted in 2009 and were communicated to Parties and signatories to the Convention by 6 June 2009 and, for information, to the Depositary on 25 June 2009.

·         One proposal was submitted in 2010 and communicated to Parties and signatories to the Convention on 28 May 2010 and, for information, to the Depositary on 17 June 2010.

·         The Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol (to be accepted before entering into force) featuring a second commitment period running from 2012 until 2020 limited in scope to 15% of the global carbon dioxide emissions due to the lack of commitments of Japan, Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, New Zealand (nor the United States and Canada, who are not parties to the Protocol in that period) and due to the fact that developing countries like China (the world's largest emitter), India and Brazil are not subject to emissions reductions under the Kyoto Protocol.

·         Language on loss and damage, formalized for the first time in the conference documents.

·         Russia, Belarus and Ukraine objected at the end of the session.

COP 19

From

11 to 23

November

2013 in

Warsaw,

Poland

·         Further advancing the Durban Platform.

·         Long-term climate finance.

·         Warsaw international mechanism for loss and damage associated with climate.

·         Report of the Green Climate Fund to the Conference of the Parties and guidance to the Green Climate Fund.

·         Arrangements   between the Conference of the Parties and the Green Climate Fund.

·         Report   of   the   Global Environment Facility to the Conference of the Parties and guidance to the Global Environment Facility.

·         A draft report on the work of the session will be prepared for adoption by the COP at the end of the session.

·         The COP will be invited to adopt the draft report and authorize the Rapporteur to complete the report after the session under the guidance of the President and with the assistance of the secretariat.

·         Expression of gratitude to the Government of the Republic of Poland and the people of the city of Warsaw.

COP 20

From 1

December to

12 December

2014 in

Lima, Peru

·         Gender and climate change.

·         Other matters referred to the Conference of the Parties by the subsidiary bodies.

·         Capacity-building under the Convention.

·         Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage associated with Climate Change Impacts.

·         Lima Call for Climate Action.

·         Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage associated.

·         Report of the Global Environment Facility to the Conference of the Parties.

·         Further guidance to the Least Developed Countries Fund.

·         Methodologies for the reporting of financial information by Parties included.  

COP 21

From 30

November to

12 December

2015 in

Paris, France

·         Placing emphasis on concepts like   climate   justice   and sustainable lifestyles, the Paris Agreement for the first time brings together all nations for a common cause under the UNFCCC.

·         One of the main focuses of the agreement is to hold the increase in the global average temperature to well below \[2{}^\circ C\]above pre- industrial level and on driving efforts to limit it even further to \[1.5{}^\circ C\]

·         The Agreement seeks to enhance the 'implementation of the Convention' while reflecting the principles of equity and CBDR-RC, in the light of different national circumstances. Agreement is not mitigation-centric and includes other important elements such as adaptation, loss and damage, finance, technology development and transfer, capacity building and transparency of action and support.

·         Negotiations resulted in the adoption of the Paris Agreement on 12 December, governing climate change reduction measures from 2020.

·         The adoption of this agreement ended the work of the Durban platform, established during COP17.

·         The agreement will enter into force (and thus become fully effective) on November 4, 2016. On October 4, 2016 the threshold for adoption was reached with over 55 countries representing at least 55% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions ratifying the Agreement.

COP 22

From 7 November to 18 November 2016 in Marrakech, in the North- African country of Morocco

·         A focal issue of COP 22 is that of water scarcity, water cleanliness, and water-related sustainability, a major problem in the   developing   world, including many African states.

·         Prior to the event a special initiative on water was preside by Charafat Afailal, Morocco's Minister in Charge of Water and Aziz Mekouar, COP 22 Ambassador for Multilateral Negotiations.

·         Another focal issue was the need to reduce greenhouse emissions and utilize low-carbon energy sources. Mr. Peter Thompson, President of the UN General Assembly, called for the transformation of the global economy in all sectors to achieve a low emissions global economy.

·         Preparations for the entry into force of the Paris Agreement and the first session of the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement.

·         Paris Committee on Capacity-building.

·         Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and

·         Damage associated with Climate Change Impacts.

·         The Paris Agreement has been adopted and brought into force, but work needs to be done to put flesh onto its basic structure.

·         Report of the Green Climate Fund to the Conference of the Parties and guidance to the Green Climate Fund.

·         Outcome of the first round of the international assessment and review process (2014 - 2015).

COP 23

COP 23 is expected to be held from 6 November to 17 November to 2017 in Bonn, Germany

.

Rank

Country

Rank

4

France

66.17

6

United Kingdom

66.10

16

Italy

60.72

20

India

50.08

22

Indonesia

58.86

28

Mexico

57.02

29

Germany

56.86

32

South Africa

56.17

36

Argentina

53.15

40

Brazil

52.46

43

United States

51.04

48

China

47.49

51

Turkey

45.54

53

Russian Federation

44.30

55

Canada

43.06

57

Australia

40.66

58

Korea

38.11

60

Japan

35.93

61

Saudi Arabia

25.45

Rank

Country

Score

4

France

66.17

5

Sweden

66.15

6

United Kingdom

66.10

7

Cyprus

64.28

9

Luxemburg

62.86

10

Malta

62.51

11

Portugal

62.47

12

Belgium

62.08

13

Denmark

61.87

15

Latvia

61.20

16

Italy

60.72

17

Croatia

60.66

18

Romania

60.33

19

Lithuania

59.75

21

Ireland

59.02

24

Czech Republic

58.52

25

Greece

58.29

26

Slovak Republic

57.69

27

Netherland

57.10

29

Germany

56.58

30

Slovenia

56.55

31

Finland

56.28

33

Spain

56.14

34

Hungary

55.05

35

Poland

53.68

37

Bulgaria

53.06

41

Austria

52.00

50

Estonia

46.04

Rank

Country

Score

8

Morocco

63.28

20

India

59.08

22

Indonesia

58.86

23

Egypt

58.75

28

Mexico

57.02

32

South Africa

56.16

36

Argentina

53.15

40

Brazil

52.46

42

Thailand

51.91

44

Malaysia

50.96

47

Algeria

48.46

48

China

47.49

51

Turkey

45.54

52

Chinese Taipei

44.76

54

Singapore

43.97

56

Iran

43.05

58

Korea

38.11

61

Saudi Arabia

25.45