State Formation and Social Change
Category : Teaching
State Formation and Social Change
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
The chapter leaps into the period of 6th century BCE that is marked by significant political, social, economic, and religious developments. Let us explore all those developments that make this period so distinct from the rest.
POST-VEDIC PERIOD
Transition to State and Social Orders (1000 BCE-500 BCE)
The history of later Vedic period is based mainly on the Vedic texts compiled after the age of Rig Veda. The sources for later Vedic phase includes three Vedas (Yajur, Atharva, and Sama), Brahmanas, Upanishads, Painted Grey Ware (PGW) sites, and iron implements.
Question: What are POW sites?
Answer: Inhabited sites in Upper Gangetic basin of later Vedic period where people used earthen bowls and dishes made of POW pottery.
The sources highlight the Aryan's expansion in the later Vedic phase from Punjab to present-day I Western Uttar Pradesh covered by Ganga-Yamuna doab. The Bharat and Purus were the two important tribes who combined to form the Kuru people.
Question: Do you know the land of Kurus occupying Delhi and upper reaches of Ganga-Yamuna Doab?
Answer. It is Kurukshetra.
Gradually, Kurus, coalesced with the Panchalas occupying central part of the doab (modern districts of Bareilly, Badaun, and Farrukhabad). The authority of Kuru-Panchala had set up their capital at Hastinapur situated in Meerut district. The history of Kuru tribes is important for the Battle of Bharata (950 BCE), which is the principal theme of the great epic called Mahabharata resulted in the destruction of whole Kuru clan virtually.
In a famous passage of the Satapatha Brahmana, we are told that Agni, the fire God, moved eastward, burning the earth until he reached the river Sadanira (currently, it is called Gandak). There he stopped. He asked chieftain Videha Mathava to carry him over the river. Thus, the land of Videha was Aryanised it took its name from its coloniser. The legend is mentioned in a famous passage of Satapatha Brahmana. This event caused the Vedic people of later Vedic period to move towards Kosala in Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Videha in North Bihar; furthermore, land clearance by burning lead tothe migrations of warriors and agriculturists that resulted in the establishments of new settlements.
Do you think that some metal implements would have been used for cutting and burning the trees in the forests?
A reference to a presence of a dark or black metal axe has been made in the later Vedic texts such as Shyama or Krishna Ayas and it has also been found at excavated sites such as Atranjikhera and Jakhera in Western Uttar Pradesh and its adjoining areas.
Question: What is the contemporary name of Shyama Ayas?
Answer: Iron.
Diffusion of Iron Technology and Agriculture
Agriculture was the chief means of subsistence of later Vedic people; however, it was primitive because of the dominant use of wooden ploughshare since upper Gangetic plains had light soil. 3n the contrary, the eastward thrust of Vedic people exposed the densely forested, moist soil of mid-Gangetic plains receiving 114-140 cm rainfall, which could not be colonised without the aid of ron implements. References to four great forests (Maha-Aranyas) and derivation of names of some modern places such as Champaran from Champaranya, Arrah from ancient Aranya suggest that niddle Gangetic basin was thickly forested. Archaeological evidences of iron ploughshare are found n Ropar, Jakhera, and Kaushambi; iron slag and iron subjects (axes, chisel, and sickles) are found it Rajghat (Banaras). However, they are found meagre in quantity because of the corrosive nature)f soil in mid-Gangetic plains that complement huge textual reference to agricultural tools made of iron. The mention of Kuddala (hoe/spade) and Kuddalika (one who earns his livelihood with the P of his tool) in a Brahmanical text advances the use of iron implements further in agriculture.
All these information indicate the diffusion of iron technology; most importantly, iron tools and implements were used not only in wars during post-Vedic period but also for other purposes such as for clearing forests and bringing more and more land under plough. Since iron ploughshares made deep ploughing possible with consequent proliferation of territorial settlements strengthened by the fact that more than 550 Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) sites (distinctive artefact category of the period from 6th century up to the 1 st century BCE) have been either excavated or explored in the upper and middle Ganga plains.
The new agrarian economy based on the iron ploughshare required the use of bullocks; how- ever, Vedic practice of killing cattle in sacrifices and non-Vedic tribal practice of killing cattle for food decimated the cattle population. Therefore, to stabilise and flourish new agricultural economy, killing was stopped.
Relationship between Technological Development and Social Change
The use of effective iron implements was accompanied by an improved knowledge of cultivation and a variety of crops. This enabled peasants to produce large surpluses that helped the growth of towns. The existence of no less than 10 urban centres in the middle ganga basin during 600 BCE-300 BCE is proved by both archaeology and contemporary literature; for example, Champa, Rajgriha, Saketa, and Banaras.
Trade has been both a cause and effect of increasing urbanisation as witnessed in the movement of Alexander's army from mainland Greece to India; this movement had opened a number of trade routes and revealed the possibilities of mercantile relations between north west India and west Asia. For example, along Ganga from Rajgriha to Kaushambi connecting Ujjain (Madhya Pradesh) with broach, the chief port for sea trade with west; route from Kaushambi leading across Punjab to Taxila, an outlet for India's overland trade with north west. The Jatakas, the Buddhist birth stories, make references to caravans of 500-1000 carts going from one place to another. Trade received a major boost with the use of metal coins in the post-Vedic period. These coins were issued by merchants and they were covered with punch marks; thus, these coins were termed as 'punch-marked' coins. Many hoards of such coins have been found in the middle Ganga plains indicating a reasonably high level of monetisation of region,
The growth of towns, expansion of trade and rise of money economy had led to the development of diverse arts and crafts other than pre-existing service occupations (weaver, painter, barber,-and cook), such as vehicle maker, needle maker, carpenter, metalsmith, goldsmith, potter, ivory maker, garland maker, and silk manufacturer implying specialisation in the field of commodity production.
Artisans and craftsmen had soon organised themselves into guilds such as smiths, painters, woodworkers, and leatherworkers, who inhabited a particular section of town. This led to the localisation of crafts and industries and also their hereditary transmission from father to son. New groups rose to prominence in society because of guilds such as jettaka (head of guild) and setthis (financier or banker).
In countryside, gahapatis (peasant proprietors) came to forefront by virtue of their wealth. In earlier period, they were the lords of the house; however, now, they are the heads of large patriarchal household of any caste. Since wealth was measured in terms of lands and not cattle, the gahapatis became affluent.
The rise of new wealthy class in villages and towns caused economic inequalities that further undermined the tribal ideas of kinship and equality; however, it strengthened four Varna divisions of the society during the post-Vedic period. The cultural gap between aboriginal tribes, autochthons (hunters and fowlers) at low level of material culture and Varna society led to the growth of untouchability. For example, autochthonous people such as chandalas and pukkasas were objects of spite and abhorrence.
Religion
Vedic ritualism and animals' sacrifices conflicted the aspiration of rising social group and misfit the basic changes in material lives of the people. Therefore, in 6th century BCE at Gangetic valley, there emerged new philosophical ideas such as Charvaka school of philosophy, Vaisheshika school, and Samkhya system; further, religious ideas of Jainism and Buddhism became the most prevalent. The doctrine of ahimsa helped in increasing development in the plough cultivation, which was mainly dependent on animal husbandry against animal sacrifice in the Vedic period; however, undue emphasis on non-violence stood in the way of its propagation among agriculturalists whose profession involved killing insects and pests along artisans and craftsman whose occupation endangered the life of other creatures. Jainism restricts on owning private property as it creates social inequalities and this restriction was interpreted as a ban only on the possession of land property. Therefore, the followers of Jainism had specialised in the traffic of manufactured goods and confined themselves to financial transactions. Therefore, Jains became increasingly associated with the spread of urban culture and maritime trade, especially during the recent development of 6th century. Trade and use of money gave rise to money lending and usury; how- ever, Dharmasutras (Brahmanical law books) decried the practice of lending money at an interest rate and the Vaishyas who lent money because of growing trade and commerce were held in low esteem. Further, they looked for better social status offered by the new religious ideas of Jainism and Buddhism.
Jainism
Life of Vardhamana Mahavira (539 BC-467 BC)
Vardhamana Mahavira was the 24th Tirthankara of the Jain tradition. He was born at Kundagrama near Vaishali to Kshatriya parents Siddhartha and Trishala. He married Yashoda and gave birth to a daughter. At the age of 30, he became an ascetic and wandered for 12 years. In the 13th year of his penance, he attained the highest spiritual knowledge called Kevala Jnana. Thereafter, he was called Mahavira and Jina (conqueror of world). His followers were called Jains and his religion was Jainism. He preached his doctrines for 30 years and died at the age of 72 at Pava near Rajagriha.
The three principles of Jainism, also known as Triratnas (three gems), are right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct.
Mahavira organised the Sangha to spread his teachings. He admitted both men and women in the Sangha, which consisted of both monks and lay followers. The first Jain Council was convened; at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu, the leader of the Digambaras, in the beginning of the 3rd century' BC. The second Jain Council was held at Vallabhi in 5th century AD. The final compilation of Jain literature called twelve Angas was completed in this council.
Buddhism
Life of Gautama Buddha (567 BC-487 BC)
Gautama or Siddhartha, the founder of Buddhism, was born in 567 BC in Lumbini Garden near Kapilavastu. His father was Suddhodana of the Shakya clan and mother Maya devi. He left home at the age of 29 in search of truth. He wandered for 7 years and met several teachers but could not get enlightenment. At last, he sat under a Bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya and did intense penance, after which he got enlightenment (Nirvana) at the age of 35. Since then he was known as the Buddha or 'the Enlightened One'. He delivered his first sermon at Sarnath near Banaras, and for the next 45 years, he led the life of a preacher. He died at the age of 80 at Kushinagar.
The four noble truths of Buddha are as follows:
1. The world is full of sufferings.
2. The cause of suffering is desire.
3. If we get rid of desires, suffering can be removed.
4. This can be done by following the Eightfold Path.
The Eightfold Path consists of right view, right resolve, right speech, right conduct, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. .
The first Buddhist council was held at Rajagriha under the chairmanship of Mahakasyapa immediately after the death of Buddha. Its purpose was to maintain the purity of the teachings of the Buddha. The second Buddhist council was convened at Vaishali around 383 BC. The third Buddhist council was held at Pataliputra under the patronage of Asoka. The final version of Tripitakas was completed in this council. The fourth Buddhist council was convened in Kashmir by Kanishka under the chairmanship of Vasumitra. The new school of Buddhism called Mahayana Buddhism came into existence during this council.
The Buddhist texts were collected and compiled some 500 years after the death of Buddha. They are known as the Tripitakas, namely the Sutta, the Vinaya, and the Abhidhamma Pitakas. They are written in the Pali language.
DIFFUSION OF IRON TECHNOLOGY AND POLITICAL ORGANISATION
Like religion, contemporary political developments were also deeply rooted in changing material condition towards the end of later Vedic phase. The diffusion of iron technology in agriculture enabled peasants to produce more food grains than they required for consumption. This extra produce was being collected to meet the growing needs of military and administration. Newly introduced land taxes such as bhaga and kara became state's source of income along obligatory Bali (earlier voluntary tribute by people to the chief of tribe). Along peasants, new artisans and traders also became tax-paying classes. According to law books, the artisans had to work one day a month for a king and traders had to pay taxes on sales to toll officers known as shaulkike or shulkadhyaksha. The taxation system grew consequently developing the state machinery that became complex as the time progressed. For instance, tribal militia was now replaced by a standing army, the most effective prop of state organization.
RISE OF STATES
In 6th century BCE, the rise of large states with towns as their base of operations strengthened the territorial idea. A passage from panini makes clear that people owed allegiance to the Janapada (territory to which they belonged) rather than their Jana (tribe). Therefore, the important feature of political life was the emergence of several territorial states in different parts of the country.
According to the Buddhist literature Anguttara Nikaya, 16 large states (Mahajanapadas), each comprising several agricultural settlements (Janapadas), existed in the 6th century BCE in the Indian subcontinent.
Some of them had monarchical forms of government, while some others were republics. While there was a concentration of monarchies on the Ganga plain, the republics were scattered in the foothills of the Himalayas and in northwestern India. Some of the republics consisted of only one tribe, such as Sakyas, Licchavis, and Mallas. In the republics, the power of decision in all matters of the state vested with the public assembly, which was composed of the tribal representatives or heads of families. All decisions were made by a majority vote.
Undoubtedly, this number of large territorial states is not ordinary. However, did all of these 16 Mahajanapadas play the same role in contemporary politics? The answer is NO. In the 6th century BCE, only 4 states remained important. Can you guess their names? It is Kashi, Kosala, Magadha, and Vajjian confederacy. However, what could have made these states so exclusive is significant to explore.
Kashi was at first the most powerful of them and played important role in subversion of Videhan monarchy. Its capital was Varanasi. The economic importance of Kashi lay in the fact of being the leading centre of textile manufacture during the Buddha period. For example, Kashaya (orange brown) robes of Buddhist monks are said to have been manufactured here.
Ayodhya was the capital of Kosala. King Prasenajit was its famous ruler. He was highly educated. His position was further strengthened by the matrimonial alliance with Magadha. His sister was married to Bimbisara and Kasi was given to her as dowry. Subsequently, there was a dispute with Ajatasatru. After the end of the conflict, Prasenajit married the daughter of Bimbisara. After the death of this powerful king, Kosala became part of the Magadha.
The Vajji state is said to be a confederation of 8 clans (atthakulas) such as Vedehans and lichch-havis, which was non-monarchical in nature.
Of all the kingdoms of north India, Magadha emerged powerful and prosperous. It became the nerve Centre of political activity in north India. Magadha was endowed by nature with certain geographical and strategic advantages. These made her to rise to imperial greatness. Her strategic position between the upper and lower part of the Gangetic valley was a great advantage. It had fertile soil. The iron ores in the hills near Rajgir and copper and iron deposits near Gaya added to its natural assets. Her location at the centre of the highways of trade of those days contributed to her wealth. Rajagriha was the capital of Magadha. During the reign of Bimbisara and Ajatasatru, the prosperity of Magadha reached its zenith.
These four states fought for political hegemony for nearly 100 years; however, eventually Magadha emerged victorious and became Centre of political activity in north India.
Magadha
Magadha became the most important Mahajanapada in about 200 years. Many rivers such as the Ganga and Son flowed through Magadha. This was important for (a) transport, (b) water supplies, and (c) making the land fertile. Parts of Magadha were forested. Elephants, which lived in the forest, could be captured and trained for the army. Forests also provided wood for building houses, carts, and chariots. Besides, there were iron ore mines in the region that could be tapped to make strong tools and weapons. Magadha had two very powerful rulers, Bimbisara and Ajatasatru, who used all the possible means to conquer other janapadas. Mahapadma Nanda was another important ruler. He extended his control up to the north-west part of the subcontinent. Rajagriha (now, it is called Rajgir) in Bihar was the capital of Magadha for several years. Later, the capital was shifted to Pataliputra (now, it is called Patna). More than 2300 years ago, a ruler named Alexander, who lived in Macedonia in Europe, wanted to become a world conqueror. Of course, he did not conquer the world, but did conquer parts of Egypt and West Asia, and came to the Indian subcontinent, reaching up to the banks of the Beas. When he wanted to march further eastwards, his soldiers refused. They were scared, as they had heard that the rulers of India had vast armies of foot soldiers, chariots, and elephants.
Vajji
While Magadha became a powerful kingdom; Vajji, with its capital at Vaishali (Bihar), was under a different form of government known as Gana or sangha. In a Gana or a sangha there were not one, but many rulers. Sometimes, even when thousands of men ruled together, each one was known as a raja. These rajas performed rituals together. They also met in assemblies and decided what had to be done or how a situation can be handled through their discussions and debates. For example, if they were attacked by an enemy, they discuss on what should be done to meet the threat. However, women, dasas, and kammakaras could not participate in these assemblies.
Both the Buddha and Mahavira belonged to Ganas or Sanghas. Some of the most vivid descriptions of life in the Sanghas can be found in Buddhist books.
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