Social Influence Group Processes (Notes)
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7. SOCIAL INFLUENCE AND GROUP PROCESSES
FACTS THAT MATTER
NATURE AND FORMATION OF GROUPS
Group: Organised system of two or more people who interact and are interdependent, have common motives, have a set of role relationships among members and have norms that regulate the behaviour of its members.
Features:
1. Collection of people with common goals and motives.
2. Two or more people: perceive themselves as belonging to the groupeach group is unique.
3. Members are interdependent.
4. Members interact with each other directly or indirectly.
5. Members satisfy needs through joint associationinfluence each other.
6. Set of norms and rolesspecific functions for each member, adhere to norms on how one must behave, expected behaviour, etc.
Crowd |
Collection of people present at a place/situation by chance. |
No structure, no sense of belongingness, no interdependence, people show irrational behaviour. |
Teams |
Members have complementary skills and are committed to a common goal/purpose. |
Members are mutually accountable, and derive positive synergy from co-ordinate efforts. |
Audience |
Collection of people assembled for a specific purpose. |
This is passive and could turn into a mob. |
Mob |
(i) Collection of people with a definite sense of purpose. (ii) Polarisation in attention and actions in common direction. |
Homogeneity of thought and behaviour, impulsive. |
Groups |
Teams |
Performance dependent on contribution of individual members. |
Both individual contributions and teamwork matter. |
Leader/Head holds responsibility. |
Members hold themselves responsible. |
Advantages:
We are simultaneously members of different groups: different groups satisfy different needs but could create pressures due to competing demands and expectations.
1. Security: Groups reduce insecurity
· Being with peoplesense of comfort/protection.
· People feel strongerless vulnerable to threats.
2. Status: Recognised group gives feeling of power and importance.
3. Self-esteem: Feeling of self worth and positive social identity.
· Member of prestigious group enhances self-concept.
4. Goal Achievement: Group helps to attain some goals which cant be attained alone (power in the majority).
5. Provides Knowledge and Information: Broadens views, helps supplement information.
6. Satisfaction of Psychological and Social Needs: Like sense of belongingnessgiving and receiving attention, love and power.
Group Formation:
Some form of contact and interaction between people is needed.
1. Proximity: Closeness and repeated interactions with the same people (get to know their interests, attitudes and background).
2. Similarity: People prefer consistencyconsistent relationship (reinforces and validates opinions and values: feel were right).
3. Common Motives and Goals: Groups facilitate goal attainment.
Stages of group formation (Tuckman):
1. Forming: Members first meetthere is uncertainty about group and goal and how it will be achieved.
They try to get to know each otherthere is excitement and apprehension.
2. Storming: Intragroup conflictabout how the goal is to be achieved, whos the leader and who will perform what task (hierarchy of leadership and how to achieve goal is developed.
3. Norming: Develop norms related to group behaviour (development of a positive group identity).
4. Performing: Structure of the group has evolved and is accepted (towards goal achievement): at this is the last stage of group development.
5. Adjourning: Once the function is over the group may be disbanded.
Notes:
Groups do not always proceed in a systematic manner.
Stages could even take place simultaneously.
Groups can go back and forth between stages or skip a few stages.
Group Structure: Over time there are regularities in distribution of tasks, responsibilities assigned to members and status of members.
Elements:
1. Roles: Socially defined expectation that individuals in given situations are expected to fulfil, i.e., typical behaviour that depicts a person in a given social context.
(i) Role Expectations: Behaviour expected of someone in a particular role.
2. Norms (unspoken rules): Expected standards of behaviour and beliefs established, agreed upon and enforced by group-members.
3. Status: Relative social position given to group-members by others.
(i) Ascribed (given due to ones seniority) or achieved (because of expertise or hard work).
(ii) Members of a groupenjoy status, and want to be members of prestigious groups.
(iii) Within groups, different members have different prestige and status.
4. Cohesiveness: Togetherness, binding or mutual attraction among members
(i) More Cohesiveness: Members start thinking, feeling and acting as a social unit (no isolated individuals): there is an increased desire to remain in group (we feeling- sense of belongingness).
(iii) Extreme Cohesiveness leads to group think and is negative.
Types of Groups:
Primary Group |
Secondary Group |
Pre-existing formation that are usually given to a person. People usually remain a part of it through their lifetime. |
Groups which individuals join by choice. |
Includes face-to-face interaction and close physical proximity. Member share warm, emotional bonds. |
Relationships among members are more impersonal, indirect and less frequent. |
Central to persons functioning; major role in developing values and ideals. |
These may or may not be short-lived. |
Boundaries are less permeablecant choose membership, join or leave easily. |
It is easy to leave and join another group. |
Example: Family, religion, caste. |
Example: Politica0l party. |
Formal Group |
Informal Group |
Functions, based to be performed are explicitly stated. |
Roles of each member not so definite and specified. Close relationship among members exist. |
Formation based on specific rules or laws and members have defined roles. Set of norms help establish order. |
Formation not based on rules and laws. |
Example: Office, university. |
Example: peer group. |
Ingroup |
Outgroup |
Ones own groupwe (e.g., India). |
Another groupthey (e.g., Pakistan). |
Members in the groupsimilar, viewed favourably, have desired traits. |
Member of out-groupviewed differently, negatively in comparison to in group. |
Influence of Group on Individual Behaviour:
1. Social Loafing: This is the reduction in individual effort when working on a collective task.
Individual performing an activity with the others as part of a larger group.
Individuals work less hard in a group than alone.
Dont know much effort each one is putting in.
Presence of others leads to arousal: motivates individuals to enhance their performance (only when a persons efforts are individually evaluated).
Causes of Social Loafing:
(a) Members feel less responsible for the overall task and thus exert less effort.
(b) Performance of the group isnt compared with other groups.
(c) Motivation decreases as contributions are not individually evaluated.
(d) No/improper co-ordination between members.
(e) Belonging to the same group is not important for members (it is only aggregate of individuals).
Can be reduced by:
(a) Making effort of each person identifiable.
(b) Increasing pressure to work hardmake members committed, motivated.
(c) Increase apparent importance and value of task.
(d) Make them feel their individual contribution is important.
(e) Strengthen group cohesivenessincrease motivation for successful group outcome.
2. Group Polarisation: Groups are likely to take more extreme decisions than individuals would take alone
· Strengthening of groups initial position because of groups interaction.
· Dangerous repercussionsgroups may take extreme position (very weak to very strong decisions).
Causes of group Polirization:
(a) In the company of like-minded people, youre likely to hear newer arguments favouring your view-points.
(b) Bandwagon effectwhen you find others sharing your view-point, you feel your view is validated by the public.
(c) When people have similar views as you, youre likely to perceive them as in-group (start identifying with them, show conformityviews become strengthened).
Social Influences: Those processes whereby our attitudes and behaviours are influences by the real or imagined presence of other people.
Kelman.
Identification: Influence process based on agreement or identity seeking.
Internalisation: Process based on information seeking.
1. Conformity:
Most indirect form of social influence.
Tendency to follow norms is natural and spontaneous (norms are unwritten informal rules: provide information about what is expected from people in a situation: allows the group of function smoothly).
People feel uncomfortable if theyre different (could lead to dislike/disapproval or some form of social punishment) (deviants/non-conformists).
Following norms is the easiest way to avoid disapproval.
Norms reflect the views and beliefs of the majority (feel majority is likely to be right).
Experiments on conformity by Sherif (Autokinetic effect) and Asch (Asch technique) (condition determining the extent of conformitydegrees of conformity determined by situation specific factors).
Determinants of Conformity:
(a) Size of Group: More conformity when group is small.
(b) Size of Minority: Larger the minority, lesser the conformity (more is the deviance).
(c) Nature of the Task: more conformity when there are objective questions.
(d) Public/Private Expression of Behaviour: More conformity in public and less conformity in private expression.
(e) Personality: Conforming personalitytendency to change behaviour according to what others do (others are independent, dont look for norms to decide how to behave in a situationhighly intelligent people are confident).
Conformity occurs because of:
(a) Informational influence (that results from accepting evidence, not reality. Rational conformity- learn through observing others actions)
(b) Normative influence (based on desire to be accepted and admiredconform because deviation could lead to rejection/non-acceptance. Majority determines final decision but at times if minority is firm and uncompromising it doubts on the majoritys minds).
2. Compliance: Extreme condition forcing the person to accept influence (of a significant other) and behave in a particular way in response to a request from another person/group even in the absence of a norm. Why do we complyeasier way out of the situation more polite.
Factors used to make others comply:
(i) Foot in the Door Technique: Being by making small request that one cant refuse move on to bigger ones-once you comply with the first request, feel uncomfortable refusing the second one.
(ii) Deadline Technique: A last date is announced until an offer is availablemake people hurry so they cant miss the opportunity. More (the one actually required), usually granted.
(iii) Door in the Face Technique: Being with a large request and when this is refused move onto making a smaller request (the one actually required), usually granted.
3. Obedience
Response to a person in authority.
Direct and explicit form of social influence (someone has requested and you comply).
If disobeyed, one is likely to get punished from people in authority: thus, one to obey as people in authority have effective means for enforcing order.
Milgrams experiment: Even ordinary people are willing to harm innocent people if ordered by someone in authority.
Why do people obey (after knowing the effects)?
(a) Feel they are not responsible for their own action and that they are simply carrying out orders from an authority.
(b) Authority is powerful and possesses symbol of status, and thus difficult to resist.
(c) Authority increases commands from lesser to greater levels (initial obedience binds followers for commitment and once you obey small orders you start obeying bigger orders as you feel committed to the authority),
(d) Events move at such a fast speed that there is no time to think, one just obeys orders, e.g., riots
Co-operation and Competition:
Co-operation |
Competition |
When groups work together to achieve shared goals. |
When group-members try to maximize their own benefits. |
No individual rewards. Only group rewards exist. |
They work for self-interest and individual reward. |
Co-operative goalseach attains his/ her goal only if other members attain their. |
Competitive goalseach gets his/her goal only if others dont attain their. |
There is respect for one anothers ideas and members are more friendly. There is more co-ordination. |
Leads to conflict and disharmony. More group cohesion and solidarity within ones group. |
Determinants of Co-operation and Competition:
(a) Reward Structure:
Co-operative reward structure promotes interdependence: reward possible only if all contribute.
Competitive reward structureonly one gets the award.
(b) Interpersonal Communication: Good interpersonal communication increases co-operation (facilitates interaction, discussion, convinces each other and increases learning about each other).
(c) Reciprocity: People feel obligated to return the behaviour they get (initial co- operation leads to increased co-operation and initial competitiveness leads to competition).
Social Identity: Aspect of our self-concept which is based on our group-membership (tells us about ones position in the larger social contact and helps us located ourselves in society)
derives from groups we are a part of.
includes personal attributes and attributes we share with others.
acquires certain attributes from interaction with others in society.
Identification with social groups is important for self-concept.
provides members with a shared set of values, beliefs and goal about ourselves and others
Ingroupgroup with which you identify yourself (start showing favouritism towards it. Rate it above out-group and devaluate outgroup1basis of intergroup conflicts).
Intergroup Conflicts:
Conflict: This is process in which either an individual or a group perceives others as having opposing interest and both try to contradict each other (we and they feeling are strong)
Belief that others will protect only its own interests.
Both try to exert power on one another.
When groups are more aggressive than individuals, it leads to escalation of conflict.
Costly human price in conflicts.
Causes:
(a) Lack of communication or Faulty Communication: It leads to suspicion and lack of trust.
(b) Relative Deprivation: Compare oneself to members of the other group:
dont have what you desire: others have it.
Not doing well in comparison to others: deprivation depression.
(c) Belief that one is better than the other: What one partly believes should be done (if it does not happenthen members accuse one another and small differences are magnified. This leads to increased conflict).
(d) Desire for Retaliation: For harm done in the past.
(e) No Respect for Others Norms: Feeling that other group does not respect norms of my group and violates them because of malevolent intent.
(f) Biased Perception: Feeling of they and we.
(g) People are more aggressive and competitive in groups than on their own (due to competition over scarce resources).
(h) Perceived Inequity: Equitydistribution of rewards in proportion to individuals contributions (you feel irritated and exploited if you contribute more and are rewarded less).
Notes:
Conflicts between groups leads to series of social and cognitive processeshardens the stand of each side (in group polarization).
Coalition of like-minded parties increases apprehension.
Misperceptions and biased interpretations increase conflicts.
MurphyConflicts begin in the minds of men.
Structural Level: Increase in poverty rates, inequality, limited political and social opportunity, economic and social stratification.
Group Level: Social identity, unequal power relations, resources.
Individual Level: Beliefs, biased attitudes, personality characteristics (there is progression along a continuum of violencebutterfly effect).
Consequences (Deutsch):
(a) Communication becomes poor between groups (lack of trustbreakdown in communication leads to suspicion).
(b) Groups start magnifying their differences and perceive their behaviour as fair and others as unfair.
(c) Each side tries to increase its own power and legitimacy, thus the conflict shifts from smaller to larger ones.
(d) Once conflict starts, other factors lead to escalation of conflict (in-group opinion is hardened, out-group is threatened and when other parties choose sides, the conflict is further escalated).
Conflict Resolution Strategies:
1. Introduction of Superordinate Goals: Superordinate goals reduce conflict and are mutually beneficial to both sides, thus sides work co-operatively.
2. Altering Perceptions: Through persuasion, educational and media appeal portrayal of groups differently. Also promoting empathy for others should be taught.
3. Increasing Intergroup Contact: By involving groups on neutral grounds through community projects and events they become more appreciative of each others stand.
Contacts need to be maintained, supported over a period of time to be successful.
4. Redrawing Group Boundaries: Group boundaries create condition where boundaries are redefined: perceive themselves as belonging to a common group.
5. Negotiations: Reciprocal communication so as to reach an agreement in situation where there is a conflict.
(i) Conflict can be resolved through negotiations and third party interventions.
(ii) Groups try finding mutually acceptable solutions.
(iii) When negotiation doesnt work then mediation (both parties reach a voluntary agreement and focus discussions on relevant issues) or arbitration (third party has the authority to give a decision after hearing both parties) by is used.
6. Structural Solutions: Redistributing societal resources according to principles based on justice. Principles of justiceequality (allocating equally to everyone), need (allocating on the basis of ones need) and equity (allocating on the basis of contribution).
7. Respect for other Groups Norms: To respect and be sensitive to the strong norms of various social and ethnic groups, especially in India where many communal riots have occurred due to in sensitivity of one religious group towards another.
Groupthink (Irving Janis)
(i) Cohesion can lead to a tendency to make irrational and uncritical decisiongroup allows its concerns for unanimity.
(ii) Appearance of consensus or unanimous agreementeach member believes that all members agree upon a particular decision, no one expresses dissenting opinion (undermine cohesion of group, makes him/her unpopular).
(iii) Exaggerated sense of its own power, ignores real world cues, out of touch with realityoccurs in socially homogenous, cohesive, isolated, do not consider alternatives decision have high cost.
(iv) Prevention-encouraging and rewarding critical thinking and disagreement encouraging groups to present alternative courses of action, inviting outside experts to evaluate group decision, encouraging seeking feedback from trusted others.
WORDS THAT MATTER
· Authority: The right inherent in a position (e.g., managerial) to give orders and to except the orders to be obeyed.
· Cohesiveness: All forces (factors) that cause group-members to remain in the group.
· Competition: Mutual striving between two individuals or groups for the same objective
· Compliance: A form of social influence in which one or more persons, not holding authority, accept direct requests from one or more others.
· Conformity: A type of social influence in which individuals change their attitudes or behaviours in order to adhere to existing social norms.
· Group: Two or more persons who interact with one another, have shared goals are interdependent, and consider themselves as members of group.
· Groupthink: A mode of thinking in which the group-members desire to reach unanimous agreement overrides the wish to adopt proper, rational, decision-making procedures; an example of group polarization.
· In-group: The social group to which an individual perceives himself or herself as belonging (us). The group with which one identifies. The other groups are out-groups.
· Obedience: Confirming behaviour in reaction to the commands of others.
· Out-group: Any group of which an individual is not a member.
· Primary Group: Group in which each member is personally known to each of the other members, and in which the members, at least on occasion, meet face-to-face.
· Proximity: The principle of Gestalt psychology that stimuli close together tend to be perceived as a group.
· Roles: An important concept in social psychology which refers to the behaviour expected of an individual in accordance with the position he/she holds in a particular society.
· Social Influence: The process by which the actions of an individual or group affect the behaviours of others.
· Social Inhibition: Social restraint on conduct.
· Social Loafing: In a group, each additional individual puts in less effort, thinking that others will be putting in their effort.
· Social Support: Information from other people that one is loved and cared for, esteemed and valued, and part of a network of communication and mutual obligation.
· Status: Social rank within a group.
· Structure: The enduring form and composition of a complex system or phenomenon. Contrast with function, which is a process of a relatively brief duration, arising out of structure.
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