question_answer

Explain the striking features about the location of Vijaynagara, its water resources and its fortifications.

Or

Explain how during 16th and 17th centuries agriculture was organized around two major seasonal cycles by giving examples of different crops.

Answer:

Situated in the Bellary district of Karnataka, the Vijaynagar empire was located south of the Deccan Plateau in the Tungabhadra basin, flanked on its north by the Sultanate empire of the Deccan and the Gajapan kingdom of Orissa. Situated in a rocky terrain, with extreme dry conditions, and encircled by stark granite hills, the basin was watered by the Tungabhadra river which flowed in the north - easterly direction. As the economy depended completely on agriculture, Vijaynagar?s rulers paid special attention towards the creation of an efficient system of irrigation, using the several streams feeding the Tungabhadra river, building embankments along the Tungabhadra river to create reservoirs, establishing an extensive network of canals and aequeducts to feed the fields and constructing several tanks to store rainwater. A striking example is me Kamalapuram tank. Canals connected to this tank supplied water to the fields and to the ?royal centre?. The irrigated valley of the empire lay in - between the sacred zone and the urban core of the empire. As per epigraphic sources, the rulers of the Sangama dynasty had constructed the Hiraya canal to draw water from a dam built on the Tungabhadra River.

Several travellers have elucidated on the intricate water resource network of the Vijaynagar empire. Domingo Paes, a Portuguese traveller who visited the empire around the first half of the sixteenth century, mentions about a tank built between two adjacejt hills by Krishnadeva Raya, the most prominent ruler of the empire. The tank, which collected the water flowing down the hills, was connected by pipes running over a distance of 15 km to a lake which again flowed into a river. Three ornamental pillars, lining the tank, were supposedly connected with pipes to water the rice fields and gardens.

Another unique feature of the empire was its fortifications. Abdur Razzaq, the Persian ambassador to Calicut, observed that ?between the first, second and the third walls [o the fortifications that encircled the region] there are cultivated fields, gardens and houses?. To oust any possibility of running out of stock of grains during a siege and ensure its sustainability, the Vijaynagar rulers constructed seven lines of forts surrounding the city and the agricultural hinterland. The wedge-shaped stones fitted into each other. Cement or mortar was not required to hold the stones together. The huge masonry constructions had a tapering appearance. The inner walls were made of earth lined with rubble. The bastions that protruded outwards were either square or rectangular in shape.

While each important building in the royal centre was guarded by high walls, the royal enclave itself was again encircled by fortifications and the inner core of the urban centre also had another row of fortifications. Gateways flanking the entrance to the forts and connecting the roads with the city centre had arches and domes with intricate patterns, revealing Indo-Islamic influences because of the close proximity of the Turkish Sultans to the empire. The Vijaynagar empire thus stands apart with regard to its location, managemen of water resources and intricate fortifications.

Or

In India the economy of the country largely depends on agriculture which in turn revolves around the monsoons. In the 16t and 1711 centuries too, the monsoons remained the backbone of the agricultural yield. However, in areas where the precipitation was low, the Mughal rulers took initiative in improving irrigation and repairing the existing network of canals. Except for the regions that had extremely dry conditions, generally there were two Seasonal cycles or at least two types of cropping patterns followed in 16th and 17th century India. This meant that two crops could be grown in most cases during a period of one year-one, which was harvested during autumn, hence called the kharif (autumn) and two, which were ready by spring and known as rabi. In the Mughal period, apart from this two- crop or do fasla agricultural pattern, areas having adequate precipitation and irrigation coverage, also could grow three crops a year. Records of the Ain-i-Akbari reveal that the agricultural produce increased to a great extent. While Agra produced 39 varieties, Delhi took pride in producing 43 types of crops within the two-season cycle. In Bengal where mostly rice was cultivated, there were 50 varieties of rice.

The primary focus of agriculture was to grow the staple crops like rice, wheat and pulses. A unique feature of Mughal administration is that the rulers also encouraged farmers to experiment with other crops besides the cultivation of staple crops. Perfect crops or jins-i-kamil is an expression we often come across medieval records and cotton and sugarcane were considered as unique examples of the kind. There were other crops grown apart from those cultivated for sustenance. In a way this augmented the income from revenue and enriched the Mughal coffers. Cotton was widely grown in Central India and the Deccan Plateau. Other cash crops like mustard and lentils also were widely grown. This period witnessed a marked increase in the yield of oil seeds. Owing to their abundance perhaps, in Akbar?s time the price of oil seeds were even cheaper than wheat. Sugar was extensively available in Bengal. Sugar and Gur were manufactured from the sugarcane mills. Tobacco which was first introduced in the Deccan gradually spread to northern India in the 17th century and gradually became immensely popular, so much so that by the end of the century it became one of the most important items of consumption and cultivation. Other new crops were introduced in the seventeenth century. Maize or Makka was introduced from Africa and Spain and became largely popular. Owing to the New World, cultivators became familiar with other vegetables like tomatoes, chillies, potatoes and fruits like papaya and pineapple. A peasant successfully balanced the cultivation of sustenance and commercial crops in a normal holding within the seasonal cycle.