Directing

Category :

7. Directing

INTRODUCTION

This chapter explains the concepts of directing and its importance in business sector. The elements of directing includes supervision (its importance), motivation (features, process, Maslow's need hierarchy theory and incentives), leadership (features and its styles) and communication (elements, types, its barriers and measures to overcome barriers) with their concepts.

Chapter at a Glance

MEANING OF DIRECTING

(i) Directing means giving instructions and guiding people in doing work.

(ii) In the context of management of an organisation, directing refers to the process of instructing, guiding, counselling, motivating and leading people in the organisation to achieve its objective.

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF DIRECTING

(i) Directing initiates action:

(a) Directing is a key managerial function. A manager has to perform this function along with planning, organising, staffing and controlling while discharging his duties in the organisation.

(b) While other functions prepare a setting for action, directing initiates action in the organisation.

(ii) Directing takes place at every level of management/is a pervasive function:

(a) Directing is a pervasive function in the sense that it exists at every level, location and operation throughout the organisation.

(b) Every manager, from top executive to supervisor performs the function of directing. The directing takes place wherever superior - subordinate relations exist.

(iii) Directing is a continuous process:

(a) Directing is a continuous activity. It takes place throughout the life of the organisation irrespective of people occupying managerial positions.

(b) We can observe that in organisations like Infosys, Tata, BHEL, HLL and the managers may change but the directing process continues because without direction the organisational activities cannot continue further.

(iv) Directing flows from top to bottom:

(a) Directing is first initiated at top level and flows to the bottom through organizational hierarchy.

(b) It means that every manager can direct his immediate subordinate and take instructions from his immediate boss.

IMPORTANCE OF DIRECTING

(i) Initiates action:

(a) Directing helps to initiate action by people in the organisation towards attainment of desired objectives.

(b) For example, if a supervisor guides his subordinates and clarifies their doubts in performing a task, it will help the worker to achieve work targets given to him.

(ii) Integrates employees efforts:

(a) Directing integrates employees efforts in the organisation in such a way that every individual effort contributes to the organisational performance. Thus, it ensures that the individuals work for organisational goals.

(b) For example, a manager with good leadership abilities will be in a position to convince the employees working under him that individual efforts and team effort will lead to achievement of organisational goals.

(iii) Means of motivation:

(a) It motivates the employees to work efficiently and effectively and to contribute their maximum efforts to the best of their abilities for the achievement of organizational goals.

(b) A good leader can always identify the potential of his employees and motivate them to extract work up to their full potential.

(iv) Facilitates change:

(a) Directing facilitates introduction of needed changes in the organisation.

(b) Generally, people have a tendency to resist changes in the organisation. Effective directing through motivation, communication and leadership helps to reduce such resistance and develop required cooperation in introducing changes in the organisation.

(c) For example, if a manager wants to introduce new system of accounting, there may be initial resistance from accounting staff. But, if manager explains the purpose, provides training and motivates with additional rewards, the employees may accept change and cooperate with manager.

(v) Brings stability:

(a) Through directing, a manager can bring stability and balance in the organization.

(b) It fosters cooperation and commitment among the people and helps to achieve balance among various groups, activities and departments in the organization.

ELEMENTS OF DIRECTING

(i) Supervision (ii) Motivation

(iii) Leadership (iv) Communication

(i) Supervision: The term supervision can be understood in two ways.

1. As an element of directing:

· Supervision being an element of directing means every manager in the organisation supervises his/her subordinates.

· In this sense, supervision can be understood as the process of guiding the efforts of employees and other resources to accomplish the desired objectives.

· It means overseeing what is being done by subordinates and giving instructions to ensure optimum utilisation of resources and achievement of work targets.

2. As a function performed by supervisors:

· It means a managerial position in the organisation hierarchy at the operative level i.e., immediately above the worker.

· The functions and performance of the supervisor are vital to any organisation because he is directly related with workers whereas other managers have no direct touch with bottom level workers.

Importance of Supervision

(a) Maintains day-to-day contact:

· Supervisor maintains day-to-day contact and maintains friendly relations with workers.

· A good supervisor acts as a guide, friend and philosopher to the workers.

(b) Link between workers and management:

· Supervisor acts as a link between workers and management.

· He conveys management ideas to the workers on one hand and workers problems to the management on the other.

· This role played by supervisor helps to avoid misunderstandings and conflicts between management and workers/employees.

· Supervisor plays a key role in maintaining group unity among workers placed under his control.

· He sorts out internal differences and maintains harmony among workers.

(d) Ensures performance:

· Supervisor ensures performance of work according to the targets set.

· He takes responsibility for task achievement and motivates his workers effectively.

(e) Provides training:

· Supervisor provides good on- the-job training to the workers and employees.

· A skilled and knowledgeable supervisor can build efficient team of workers.

(f) Influences workers:

· Supervisory leadership plays a key role in influencing the workers in the organisation.

· A supervisor with good leadership qualities can build up high morale among workers.

(g) Provides feedback:

· A good supervisor analyses the work performed and gives feedback to the workers.

· He suggests ways and means of developing work skills.

(ii) Motivation:

· Motivation means incitement or inducement to act or move.

· In the context of an organisation, it means the process of making subordinates to act in a desired manner to achieve certain organisational goals.

The three inter-related terms motive, motivation and motivators

(a) Motive:

· A motive is an inner state that energises, activates or moves and directs behavior towards goals.

· Motives arise out of the needs of individuals. Realisation of a motive causes restlessness in the individual which prompts some action to reduce such restlessness.

· For example, the need for food causes hunger on account of which a man searches for food. Some such motives are - hunger, thirst, security, affiliation, need for comfort, recognition etc.

(b) Motivation:

· Motivation is the process of stimulating people to action to accomplish desired goals.

· Motivation depends upon satisfying needs of people.

· Motivator is the technique used to motivate people in an organisation.

· Managers use diverse motivators like pay, bonus, promotion, recognition, praise, responsibility etc., in the organisation to influence people to contribute their best.

Features of Motivation

(a) Motivation is an internal feeling:

· The urge, drives, desires, aspirations, striving or needs of human being, which are internal, influence human behaviour.

· For example, people may have the urge for possessing a motorbike, comfortable house, reputation in the society. These urges are internal to an individual.

(b) Motivation produces goal directed behaviour:

· For example, the promotion in the job may be given to employee with the objective of improving his performance.

· If the employee is interested in promotion, it helps to produce a behaviour to improve performance.

· Positive motivation provides positive rewards like increase in pay, promotion, recognition etc.,

· Negative motivation uses negative means like punishment, stopping increments, threatening etc. which also may induce a person to act in the desired way.

(d) Motivation is a complex process:

· The individuals are heterogeneous in their expectations, perceptions and reactions.

· Any type of motivation may not have uniform effect on all the members.

Motivation Process

(a) Motivation process is based on human needs

(b)A simple model to explain motivation process is presented below. The following example explains the process of satisfaction of human needs. Ram is very hungry since he did not have breakfast in the morning. By 1.00 P.M., he became restless and started walking on the road in search of a hotel for snacks or meals. After walking for 2 kms, he could find a hotel where roti and dal was available for ` 10. Since he had only ` 15 in his pocket, he paid ` 10 and had a satisfying meal. After taking a meal, he felt that he had regained energy.

(c) An unsatisfied need of an individual creates tension which stimulates his or her drives. These drives generate a search behaviour to satisfy such need. If such need is satisfied, individual is relieved of tension.

Maslows Need Hierarchy Theory of Motivation

Maslow felt that within every human being, there exists a hierarchy of five needs. These are:

	Need	Meaning	Examples
1.	Physiological needs/ Basic needs	(i) These needs are most basic in the hierarchy and corresponds to primary needs.	Hunger, thirst, shelter, sleep and sex are some examples of these needs. In the organisational context, basic salary helps to satisfy these needs.
		(ii) These needs relate to the survival and maintenance of human life.
		(iii) Need for these things is felt not only for oneself but also for ones' family.
2.	Safety and Security needs	(i) These needs relate to the physical security, economic security and social security.	Job security, stability of income, pension plans.
		(ii) People want to ensure that they continue to satisfy physiological needs even in future without interruption.	Job security, stability of income, pension plans.
3.	Social/Affiliation/ Belongingness needs	(i) These needs refer to affection, sense of belongingness, acceptance and friendship.	Needs for love and affection, affiliation, acceptance belongingness, need to be accepted by one's peers need for companionship.
		(ii) These needs relate to social interaction. These are the desires to belong and be socially accepted, to love and be loved, as a social animal.
4.	Esteem or Ego needs	(i) These include factors such as self-respect, autonomy status, recognition and attention.	Need for self-image; Self-respect; Recognition; Respect from others; Self-confidence; Status; Prestige; Attention.
		(ii) Satisfaction of esteem needs leads to self-confidence and prestige.
5.	Self-Actualisation or Self-Fulfillment needs	(i) It is the highest level of need in the hierarchy. It refers to the drive to become what one is capable of becoming.	Need to grow, sense of fulfillment, maximum self- development, personal achievement.
		(ii) These needs includes growth, self-fulfillment and achievement of goals.

Maslows theory is based on the following assumptions:

(a) People's behaviour is based on their needs. Satisfaction of such needs influences their behaviour.

(b) People's needs are in hierarchical order, starting from basic needs to other levels needs.

(d) A person moves to the next higher level of the hierarchy only when the lower need is satisfied.

Incentives: Incentives can be defined as all measures in the form of monetary or non-monetary rewards, which are used to motivate employees to improve performance. It is of two types:

(a) Financial and Non-Financial Incentives

· Financial incentives (Monetary incentives): Financial incentives refer to incentives which are in direct monetary form or measurable in monetary term and serve to motivate people for better performance. The financial incentives generally used in organisations are listed below:

Ø Pay and allowances:

(i) For every employee, salary is the basic monetary incentive\includes basic pay, dearness allowance and other allowances.

(ii) Salary system consists of regular increments in the pay every year and enhancement of allowances from time-to-time. In some business organisations, pay hike and increments may be linked to performance.

Ø Productivity-linked wage incentives: Several wage incentive plans aims at linking payment of wages to increase in productivity at individual or group level.

Ø Bonus: Bonus is an incentive offered over and above the wages/salary to the employees.

Ø Profit sharing:

(i) Profit sharing is meant to provide a share to employees in the profits of the organisation.

(ii) This serves to motivate the employees to improve their performance and contribute to increase in profits.

Ø Co-partnership / Stock option:

(i) Under these incentives schemes, employees are offered company shares at set price which is lower than market price.

(ii) Sometimes, management may allot shares in line of various incentives payable in cash. The allotment of shares creates a feeling of ownership to the employees and makes them to contribute for the growth of the organisation.

(iii) In Infosys, the scheme of stock option has been implemented as a part of managerial compensation.

Ø Retirement benefits: Several retirement benefits such as provident fund, pension and gratuity provide financial security to employees after their retirement.

Ø Perquisites: In many companies perquisites and fringe benefits are offered such as car allowance, housing, medical aid, and education to the children etc., over and above the salary. These measures help to provide motivation to the employees/ managers.

(b) Non-financial incentives (Non - Monetary Incentives)

Psychological, social and emotional factors also play important role in providing motivation. Non-financial incentives mainly focus on these needs.

Important Note:

(i) Sometimes, monetary aspect may be involved in non-financial incentives as well.

(ii) However, the emphasis is to provide psychological and emotional satisfaction rather than money driven satisfaction.

(iii) For example, if an individual gets promotion in the organisation, it satisfies him psychologically more as he gets a feeling of elevation, increase in status, increase in authority, challenge in the job etc., though promotion involves payment of extra money, non-monetary aspects over-ride monetary aspects.

Some of The Important Non-Financial Incentives Are Discussed Below:

· Status:

Ø In the organisational context, status means ranking of positions in the organisation.

Ø The authority, responsibility, rewards, recognition, perquisites and prestige of job indicate the status given to a person holding a managerial position.

Ø Psychological, social and esteem needs of an individual are satisfied by status given to their job.

· Organisational climate:

Ø Organisational climate indicates the characteristics which describe an organisation and distinguish one organisation from the other.

Ø Some of these characteristics are-individual autonomy, reward orientation, consideration to employees, risk-tasking etc.

Ø If managers take positive measures regarding these aspects, it helps to develop better organisational climate.

· Career advancement opportunity:

Ø Managers should provide opportunity to employees to improve their skills so that they are promoted to the higher level jobs.

Ø Appropriate skill development programmes, and sound promotion policy will help employees to achieve promotions.

Ø Promotion works as a tonic and encourages employees to exhibit improved performance.

· Job enrichment:

Ø It is concerned with designing jobs that include greater variety of work content, higher level of knowledge and skill, more autonomy and responsibility.

Ø If jobs are enriched and made interesting, the job itself becomes a source of motivation to the individual.

· Employee recognition programmes: Recognition means acknowledgement with the show of appreciation. Employees feel motivated if appreciation is given to them. Some examples of employee recognition are:

Ø Congratulating the employee for good performance.

Ø Displaying on the notice board or in the company newsletter about the achievement of employee.

Ø Installing award or certificate for best performance.

Ø Distributing mementos, complimentaries like T-shirts in recognition of employee services.

Ø Rewarding an employee for giving valuable suggestions.

· Job security:

Ø If the employees are provided job security, they work with greater zeal.

Ø When people feel that they are likely to lose their jobs, they get disappointed.

Ø Employees want their job to be secure.

Ø They want certain stability about future income and work so that they do not feel worried on these aspects and work with greater zeal.

Ø When people feel that they are not likely to lose their jobs, they may become complacent.

· Employee participation:

Ø It means involving employees in decision making of the issues related to them.

Ø Such programmes are organized in the organisation in the forms of joint management committees, work committees, canteen committees etc.,

· Employee empowerment:

Ø Empowerment means giving more autonomy and powers to-subordinates.

Ø It makes the employees feel that their jobs are important and they contribute effectively in the various organizational task.

(iii) Leadership:

(a) Leadership is the process of influencing the behaviour of people by making them strive voluntarily towards achievement of organisational goals.

(b) Leadership indicates the ability of an individual to maintain good interpersonal relations with followers and motivate them to contribute for achieving organizational objectives.

Features of Leadership

(a) Leadership indicates ability of an individual to influence others.

(b) Leadership tries to bring change in the behaviour of others.

(d) Leadership is exercised to achieve common goals of the organisation.

(e) Leadership is a continuous process.

Leadership Style

(a) The behaviour pattern which a leader reflects in his/her role while influencing the followers is known as leadership style.

(b) Leadership style depends upon:

· Situations

· Nature of the task

· Types of followers

· Leaders philosophy, Personality, experience and value system (i.e., how he/ she uses his /her power and influence)

(c) On the basis of how leaders use their power and influence, leadership styles can be classified into three broad categories

· Autocratic or Authoritarian Leadership

· Democratic or participative leadership

· Laissez-faire or free rein leadership

Autocratic/Authoritarian leadership

(a) Under this style, autocratic leader gives order and expects his subordinates to obey those orders.

(b) He keeps all authority centred in his control and takes all decisions without consulting the subordinates. It

means communication is only one - way.

(d)No suggestions or initiative from subordinates is entertained.

(e) The approach they follow is dogmatic i.e., they don't like to be contradicted. It is like "bossing people around".

Suitability: This type of leadership is suitable when;

(a) Uneducated and unskilled workers: Subordinates are uneducated, unskilled workers and in disciplined, lack of knowledge and experience.

(b) Quick Decisions: When quick decisions are desired, this style proves useful. When there is less time for decision making and leader is most knowledgeable among the members of the group.

(c) This leadership style is effective in getting productivity in many situations like in factory where the supervisor is responsible for production on time and has to ensure labour productivity.

Democratic or Participative or Benevolent leader

(a) A democratic leaders will develop action plans and makes decisions in consultation with his subordinates.

(b) He will encourage them to participate in decision making.

(c) They also need to respect the others opinion and support subordinates to perform their duties and accomplish organisational objectives.

(d) This style is also known as group centered leadership and is based on decentralization.

(e) Democratic leaders respects the suggestions made by employees which leads to greater confidence and cooperation among them.

Suitability: Democratic leadership is suitable when:

· Availability of creative persons: Democratic style of leadership proves useful when the group members are creative, well-educated and experienced.

· Availability of Adequate Time: Democratic style of leadership proves suitable where the leader has adequate time for decision making. Decision under this style are taken after a lot of discussions and deliberation. It is also true meaningful discussions and deliberations take a good deal of time and energy.

· Flexible situations: This style is suitable where work situations change frequently and new situations demand new adaptations.

Laissez-faire/ Free-rein Leadership/Manipulative Auto-crat

(a) It refers to a leadership style in which the leaders gives his subordinates complete freedom to make decisions.

(b) The followers are given a high degree of independence to formulate their own objectives and ways to achieve

(d) This style is also known as "Hands Off leadership style or Subordinate- Centred Leadership because the leader provides no or negligible direction to the followers. Laissez- faire is a French word, which means Let them do.

Suitability

· Qualified and motivated subordinates: This style of leadership works well where the employees are qualified, experienced and well-motivated.

· Availability of External Experts: This style proves suitable where outside experts or consultants are available to extend the timely help to the employees.

· Simple work procedures and Methods: Sometimes the nature of work being performed by the followers is so simple that it does not "require any leader for mentoring and supervision.

Differences between Authoritative, Democratic and Laissez-Faire style

	Basis	Authoritative Style	Democratic Style	Laissez-Faire Style
1.	Decision- making	Leader alone takes decisions. I style.	Leader consults subordinates in the decision making We style.	Subordinates take decisions themselves. Tou5 style
2.	Delegation of authority	No delegation of authority.	More delegation of authority.	Full delegation of authority.
3.	Efficiency	Only leader efficiency.	Combined efficiency of the leader and subordinates.	Only subordinate efficiency.
4.	Communication	One-way (downward) communication.	Two-way (downward and upward) communication.	Free flow of communication.
5.	Suitability	When there is little or no time for group decision making or Subordinates are uneducated, unskilled workers, lack of knowledge and experience.	When the group members are creative, well-educated and experienced to participate in the decision making.	When the employees are qualified, experienced and well-motivated that they can take all decisions by themselves.

(iv) Communication:

(a) The word communication has been derived from the Latin word 'communis' which means 'common' which consequently implies common understanding.

(b) It is defined understood as a process of exchange of ideas, views, facts, feelings, etc.

EIements of Communication Process

(a) Sender:

· Sender means person who conveys his thoughts or ideas to the receiver.

· The sender represents source of communication.

(b) Message: It is the content of ideas, feelings, suggestions, order, etc intended to be communicated.

(c) Encoding: It is the process of converting the message into communication symbols such as words, pictures, gestures, etc.

(d) Media: It is the path through which encoded message is transmitted to receiver. The channel may be in written form face to face, phone call, internet etc.

(e) Decoding: It is the process of converting encoded symbols of the sender.

(f) Receiver: The person who receives communications of the sender.

(g) Feed back: It includes all those actions of receiver indicating that he has received and understood message of sender.

(h) Noise:

· Noise means some obstructions or hindrance to communication.

· This hindrance may be caused to sender, message or receiver.

Some examples of noise are:

Ø Ambiguous symbols that lead to faulty encoding.

Ø A poor telephone connection.

Ø An inattentive receiver.

Ø Faulty decoding (attaching wrong meanings to message).

Ø Prejudices obstructing the poor understanding of message.

Ø Gestures and postures that may distort the message.

Formal and Informal Communication Process

(a) Formal Communication:

Ø Formal communication flows through official channels designed in the organisation chart.

Ø It may take place between a superior and subordinate, subordinate and superior or amongst same group of employees or managers.

It may also be classified into vertical and horizontal communication.

Types of Formal Communication

Ø Vertical Communication:

(i) It flows vertically i.e. upwards or downwards through formal channels.

(ii) For example, application Upward communications refer to the flow of communication from subordinate to superior whereas downward communication indicates communication from a superior to subordinate.

(iii) For example, application for grant of leave, submission of progress report, and request for grant is upward communication and downward communication include-sending notice to employees to attend meeting, ordering subordinates to complete an assigned work.

Ø Horizontal or Lateral communication:

(i) It takes places between one division and another.

(ii) For example, a production manager may contact marketing manager to discuss about schedule of product delivery, design, quality, etc.

Formal Communication Networks: Pattern through which communication flows within the organisation is generally indicated through communication network. These are as follow:

Single Chain:

· This network exists between a supervisor and his subordinates

· Since many levels exist in an organisation structure, communication flows from every superior to his subordinate through single chain.

Wheel:

· In wheel network, all subordinate under one superior communicate through him only as he acts as a hub of the wheel.

· The subordinates are not allowed to talk among themselves.

Circular:

· In this, communication moves in a circle.

· Each person can communicate with his adjoining two persons. In this network, communication flow is slow.

Free flow:

· In this network, each person can communicate with others freely.

· The flow of communication is fast in this network.

Inverted V: In this network, a subordinate is allowed to communicate with his immediate superior as well as his superiors' superior.

Advantages of Formal Communication

Ø Formal communication is systematic and ensures orderly flow of information and ideas.

Ø The source of formal communication can easily be located.

Ø Formal communication facilitates managerial control over the work performance of employees.

Ø It is easy to fix responsibility in formal communication on behalf of information available there.

Ø Formal communication helps in the coordination in the organisation as well as between activities and efforts.

Limitations of Formal Communication

Ø It is a slow process and result in delays as it follows scalar chain in passing the information.

Ø It is impersonal as it lacks personal warmth or involvement in conveying information.

Ø To avoid unfavourable effect of communication, information may not be transmitted accurately.

Ø Many rules and regulation make this communication rigid.

(b) Informal Communication:

Ø Communication take place without following the formal lines of communication is said to be informal communication.

Ø The network of informal communication is known as grapevine because the origin and direction of the flow of informally conveyed messages cannot be easily traced as in the case of a vineyard.

Ø The grapevine often leads to rumours (i.e., the portion of the message which is not true) for which responsibilities cannot be fixed. Information travelling in a grapevine does not follow an orderly path.

Ø This communication spreads rapidly and sometimes the information gets distorted.

Ø For Example: workers Chit chatting in canteen about the behaviour of their superior and discussing rumours about transfer of some employees.

Grapevine Network: Grapevine communication may follow different types of network:

(a) Single Strand Network: Network in which each person communicates to the other in sequence is a single strand network.

In the above figure, A tells something to B who tells it to C, C to D and so on, till the information reaches the concerned person, that E.

(b) In Gossip Network: In gossip network, each person communication with all on non-selective basis.

In the above figure, Y share news with all the employees (A to H) in a gathering form.

In the above figure, A could not get information as the communication is based on the Law of probability and there is always probability that all employees may not get all the information.

(d) In Cluster Network: In this network, the individual communicates with only those people whom he trusts.

In the above figure, A communicates with B. B again communicate with his persons of trust and confidence i.e., C and E. It is the most common pattern of grapevine or informal communication.

Advantages of Informal Communication

· From Employees Point of View

(i) It helps the employees to develop friendly and social relationship in the organisation.

(ii) It helps them to communicate on the matters which cannot be discussed through formal communication.

(iii) Informal communication is often repeated and understood easily.

· From Management's Point of View

(i) It helps the managers to fill the communication gap, if any in the flow of information through formal communication.

(ii) It is fast and the urgent matters can be transmitted easily without any delay.

(iii) It provides emotional relief to employers and reduces tension in labour-management relations.

(iv) Through informal communication, managers can get immediate response of employees on various plans and policies.

Limitations of Informal Communication

(i) Informal communication often spreads rumours and false facts.

(ii) Sometimes confidential information gets disclosed through grapevine.

(iii) It is not easy to fix the responsibilities due to the lack of source of information.

(iv) Informal communication flows in an unsystematic way. It is irregular and untimely.

(v) Sometimes message gets distorted as it is passed by different persons.

Barriers to Communication: It is generally observed that managers face several problems due to communication breakdowns on barriers.

(a) Types of Barriers

· Semantic/Linguistic Barriers:

(i) It is the branch of linguistics dealing with meaning of words and sentences.

(ii) These are the barriers concerned with wrong of encoding and decoding of messages.

The following are the semantic barriers:

· Badly expressed messages:

(a) Sometimes intended meaning may not be conveyed by a manager to his subordinates.

(b) These badly expressed messages may be an account of inadequate vocabulary, usage of wrong words, omission of needed words etc.

· Symbols with different meanings:

(a) A word may have several meanings.

(b) Receiver has to perceive one such meaning for the word used by communicator. For example, consider these three sentences where the work 'value' is used:

(i) What is the value of this ring?

(ii) I value our friendship.

(iii) What is the value of learning computer skills?

You will find that the 'value' gives different meaning in different contexts. Wrong perception leads to communication problems.

· Faulty translations

(a) Sometimes the communications originally drafted in one language (e.g., English) need to be translated to the language understandable to workers (e.g., Hindi).

(b) If the translator is not proficient with both the languages, mistakes may creep in causing different meanings to the communication.

· Unclarified assumptions:

(a) Some communications may have certain assumptions which are subject to different interpretations.

(b) For example, a boss may instruct his subordinate, "Take care of our guest", Boss may mean that subordinate should take care of transport, food, accommodation of the guest until he leaves the place. The subordinate may interpret that guest should be taken to hotel with care.

· Technical jargons:

(a) It is usually found that specialists use technical jargon while explaining to persons who are not specialists in the concerned field.

(b) Therefore, they may not understand the actual meaning of many such words.

· Body language and gesture decoding:

(a) Every movement of body communicates some meaning.

(b) The body movement and gestures of communicator matters so much in conveying the message.

(c) If there is no match between what is said and what is expressed in body movements, communications may be wrongly perceived.

· Psychological/Emotional Barriers:

(i) Emotional or psychological factors acts as barriers to communicators.

(ii) It is concerned with the state of mind of the sender as well as the receiver.

The following are the psychological barriers:

· Premature evaluation:

(a) Some times people evaluate the meaning of message before the sender completes his message.

(b) Such premature evaluation may be due to pre-conceived notions or prejudices against the communication.

· Lack of attention:

(a) The pre-occupied mind of receiver and the resultant non-listening of message acts as a major psychological barrier.

(b) For instance, an employee explains about his problems to the boss who is pre-occupied with an important file before him. The boss does not grasp the message and the employee is disappointed.

· Loss by transmission and poor retention:

(a) When communication passes through various levels, successive transmissions of the message results in loss of, or transmission of inaccurate information. This is more so in case of oral communication.

(b) Poor retention is another problem. Usually people cannot retain the information for a long time if they are inattentive or not interested.

· Distrust:

(a) Distrust between communicator and communicate acts as a barrier.

(b) If the parties do not believe each other, they cannot understand each others message in its original sense.

· Organisational Barriers: The factors related to organisation structure, authority, relationships, rules and regulations may, sometimes, act as barriers to effective communications.

Some of the organisational barriers are:

· Organisational policy:

(i) If the organizational policy, is not supportive to free flow of communication, it may hamper effectiveness of communications.

(ii) For example, in an organisation with highly centralised pattern, people may not be encouraged to have free communication.

· Rules and Regulations: Rigid rules and cumbersome procedures may be a hurdle to communication. Similarly, communications through prescribed channel may result in delays.

· Status: Status of superior may create psychological distance between him and his subordinates. A status conscious manager also may not allow his subordinates to express their feelings freely.

· Complexity in organizational structure: In an organisation where there are a number of managerial levels, communication gets delayed and distorted as the number of filtering points are more.

· Organisational facilities: Facilities like frequent meetings, suggestion box, complaint box, social and cultural gathering, transparency in operations etc. will encourage free flow of communication.

Lack of these facilities may create communication problems.

Ø Personal Barriers: The personal factors of both sender and receiver may exert influence on effective communication.

Some of the personal barriers are:

· Fear of challenge to authority: If a superior perceives that a particular communication may adversely affect his authority, he or she may withhold or suppress such communication

· Lack of confidence of superior on his subordinate: If superiors do not have confidence on the competency of their subordinates, they may not seek their advice or opinions.

· Unwillingness to communicate: Sometimes, subordinates may not be prepared to communicate with their superiors, if they perceive that it may adversely affect their interests.

· Lack of proper incentives:

(a) If there is no motivation or incentive for communication, subordinates may not take initiative to communicate.

(b) For example, if there is no reward or appreciation for a good suggestion, the subordinates may not be willing to offer useful suggestions.

Improving Communication Effectiveness

(a) Clarifying the ideas before communication: The entire problem should be studied is depth, analysed and stated in such a manner that it is clearly conveyed to subordinates

(b) Communicate according to the needs of receiver:

· Before actually communicating the message, it is better to involve others in developing a plan for communication.

· Participation and involvement of subordinates may help to gain ready acceptance and willing cooperation of subordinates.

(c) Consult others before communicating: Before actually communicating the message, it is better to involve others in developing a plan for communication.

(d) Be aware of languages, tone and content of message:

· The contents of the message, tone, language used, manner in which the message is to be communicated are the important aspects of effective communication.

· The language used should be understandable to the receiver and should not offend the sentiments of listeners. The message should be stimulating to evoke response from the listeners.

(e) Convey things of help and value to listeners:

· While conveying message to others, it is better to know the interests and needs of the people with whom you are communicating.

· If the message relates directly or indirectly to such interests and needs it certainly evokes response from communicate.

(f) Ensure proper feedback:

· The receiver of communication must be encouraged to respond to communication.

· The communication process may be improved by the feedback received to make it more responsive.

(g) Communicate for present as well as future: Generally, communication is needed to meet the existing commitments, to maintain consistency, the communication should aim at future goals of the enterprise also.

(h) Follow-up communication:

· These should be regular follow up and receive on the instruction given to subordinates.

· Such follow up measures help in removing hurdles if any in implementing the instructions

(i) Be a good listener:

· Manager should be a good Listener. Patient and attentive listening solves half of the problems.

· Managers should also give indications of their interest in listening to their subordinates.

WORDS THAT MATTER

1. Directing: Directing means giving instructions and guiding people in doing work. In the context of management of an organisation directing refers to the process of instructing, guiding, counselling, motivating and leading people in the organisation to achieve its objective.

2. Supervision: Supervision can be understood as the process of guiding the efforts of employees and other resources to accomplish the desired objectives.

3. Motivation: Motivation is the process of stimulating people to action to accomplish desired goals.

4. Motive: Motive is an inner state that energises, activates or moves and directs behaviour towards goals.

5. Motivator: Motivator is the technique used to motivate people in an organisation.

6. Incentives: Incentives can be defined as all measures in the form of monetary or non-monetary rewards, which are used to motivate employees to improve performance.

7. Financial incentives: Financial incentives refer to incentives which are in direct monetary form or measurable in monetary term and serve to motivate people for better performance.

8. Non-financial incentives: Psychological, social and emotional factors also play important role in providing motivation. Non-financial incentives mainly focus on these needs.

9. Leadership: Leadership is the process of influencing the behaviour of people by making them strive voluntarily towards achievement of organisational goals.

10. Leadership style: The behaviour pattern which a leader reflects in his/her role while influencing the followers is known as 'leadership style'.

11. Autocratic/Authoritarian leadership: Under this style, autocratic leader gives order and expects his subordinates to obey those orders.

12. Democratic or Participative or Benevolent leader: A democratic leader develops action plans and makes decisions in consultation with his subordinates.

13. Laissez-faire/Free-rein leadership: It refers to a leadership style in which the leader gives his subordinates complete freedom to make decisions.

14. Communication: The word 'communication' has been derived from the Latin word communis which means 'common'. It consequently implies common understanding. It is understood as a process of exchange of ideas, views, facts, feelings, etc.

15. Formal communication: Formal communication flows through official channels designed in the organisation chart.

16. Vertical communication: It flows vertically i.e. upwards or downwards through formal channels. Upward communication refers to the flow of communication from subordinate to superior whereas downward communication refers to the communication from a superior to subordinate.

17. Horizontal or lateral communication: It takes places between one division and another.

18. Informal communication: Communication that takes place without following the formal lines of communication is said to be informal communication. The network of informal communication is known as 'grapevine' because the origin and direction of the flow of informally conveyed messages cannot be easily traced as in the case of a vineyard.

Notes - Time and Clocks

Directing

Other Topics