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Current Affairs UPSC

Umemployment

Umemployment       Contents of the Chapter
  • Demand-Deficient or Cyclical Unemployment
  • Seasonal unemployment
  • Frictional or Search Unemployment Structural Unemployment
  • National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO)
  • National Sample Survey Organization Concept of work
  • Labour Sector Reforms
  • Trade Union Law Changes
  • 12th Plan Strategy
  • Growing Inequalities
  • Broader Picture
  • 12th Plan Some Employment-Related Ideas
  • The Areas to Concentrate are
    An important objective of development planning in India has been to provide for gainful employment opportunities. The level, quality and growth of wages. Incomes and employment in the economy as measured by GDP, as also growth in population and consequent additions to the labour force. Thus, growth is the primary driver of employment. The employment created is none if growth is planned in labour intensive way. A number of specifically designed poverty alleviation programmes are in operation in rural and urban areas in order to ecourage self and wage employment.   Q.1.     Give an account of Types of Unemployment. Ans.    
  • Demand-deficient of Cyclical unemployment
 
  • Seasonal unemployment
 
  • Frictional or Search unemployment
 
  • Structural unemployment
  Demand-Deficient or Cyclical Unemployment Demand-deficient unemployment occurs when there is not enough demand to employ all those who want to work. It is also often known as cyclical unemployment because it will vary with the trade cycle. When the economy is booming, there will be much demand and so firms will be employing large numbers of workers. Demand deficient unemployment will at this stage of the cycle be fairly low. If the economy slows down, then demand will begin to fall. When this happens firms will begin to lay workers off as they do not need to produce so much. Demand-deficient unemployment rises. The behavior of demand-deficient unemployment will exactly mirror the trade cycle. The joblosses reported in the after math of the global recession since 2008 in India and elsewhere is an example.   Seasonal unemployment Seasonal unemployment is fairly self-explanatory. In India agricultural employment is linked to monsoon and its behavior. If there is a monsoon failure, unemployment are often highly regionalized.   Frictional or Search Unemployment When a person loses his job or chooses to leave it, he/she will have to look for another one. On average it will take everybody a reasonable period of time as they search for the right job. This creates unemployment while they search. The more efficiently the job market is matching people to jobs, the lower this form of unemployment will be. However, if there is imperfect information frictional unemployment will be higher.   The better the economy is doing, the lower this types of unemployment it likely to be. This is because people will usually be able to find jobs that suit them more quickly when the economy is doing well.     Structural Unemployment Structural unemployment occurs when the structure of industry changes. As an economy develops over time the more...
Catgeory: UPSC

India - Location

India - Location       Contents of the Chapter
  • Structure and Physiography
  • The Peninsular Block
  • Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain
  • Physiography
  • North and North Eastern Himalaya
  • The Himalayan Mountains
  • Karewas
  • Longitudinal division
  • Kashmir or Northwestern Himalayas
  • The Himachal and Uttaranchal Himalayas
  • The Arunachal Himalayas
  • The Eastern Hills and Mountains
  • The Northern Plains
  • The Northeastern Plateau
  • The Indian Desert
  • The Coastal Plains
  • The Islands
    The mainland of India, extends from Kashmir in the north to Kanniyakumari in the south and Arunachal Pradesh in the east to Gujarat in the west. India's territorial limit further extends towards the sea upto 12 nautical miles (about 21.9 km) from the coast. (See the box for conversion).   Statute mile= 63,360 inches   Nautical mile= 72,960 inches   1 Statute mile= about 1.6 km (1.584 km)   1 Nautical mile= about 1.8 km (1.852 km)   Our southern boundary extends upto \[6{}^\circ 45\] N latitude in the Bay of Bengal. If you work out the latitudinal and longitudinal extent of India, they are roughly about 30 degrees, whereas the actual distance measured from north to south extremity is 3,214 km, and that from east to west is only 2,933 km. What is the reason for this difference?   This difference is based on the fact that the distance between two longitudes decreases towards the poles whereas the distance between two latitudes remains the same everywhere.   From the values of latitude, it is understood that the southern part of the country lies within the tropics and the northern part lies in the sub-tropical zone or the warm temperate zone. This location is responsible for large variations in land forms, climate, soil types and natural vegetation in the country.   There is a general understanding among the countries of the world to select the standard meridian in multiples of \[7{}^\circ 30\]of longitude. That is why 82°30 E has been selected as the ‘standard meridian’ of India. Indian Standard Time is ahead of Greenwich Mean Time by 5 hours and 30 minutes.   There are some countries where there are more than one standard, meridian due to their vast east-lo-west extent. For example, the USA has seven time zones.   Now, let us observe the extent and its implications on the Indian people. From the values of longitude, it is quite discernible that there is a variation of nearly 30 degrees, which causes a time difference of nearly two hours between the easternmost and the westernmost parts of our country. What is the use of the standard meridian? While the sun rises in the northeastern states about two hours earlier as compared to Jaisalmer, the watches-in Dibrugarh, Imphal in the east and Jaisalmer, Bhopal or Chennai in the other parts of India show the same time. Why does this happen?   Name a few place in India through which the standard meridian passes? India with its area of 3.28 million sq. km accounts for 2.4 per cent of the world’s land more...
Catgeory: UPSC

Drainage System

Drainage System       Contents of the Chapter
  • Drainage system of India
  • Important Drainage Patterns
  • The Himalayan Drainage
  • Evolution of the Himalayan Drainage
  • The river Systems of the Himalayan Drainage
  • The Indus system
  • The Ganga System
  • The Brahmaputra System
  • The peninsular drainage system
  • The Evolution of Peninsular Drainage System
  • River systems of the peninsular drainage
  • Smaller Rivers flowing towards the West
    A river drains the water collected from a specific area, which is called its ‘catchment area’.   The flow of water through well-defined channels is known as 'drainage' and the network of such channels is called a "drainage system’. The drainage pattern of an area is the outcome of the geological time period, nature and structure of rocks, topography, slope, amount of water flowing and the periodically of the flow.   An area drained by a river and its tributaries is called a drainage basin. The boundary line separating one drainage basin from the other is known as the watershed. The catchments of large rivers are called river basins while those of small rivulets and rills are often referred to as watersheds. There is however, a slight difference between a river basin and a watershed. Watersheds are small in area while the basins cover larger areas.   Indian drainage system may be divided on various bases. On the basis of discharge of water (orientations to the sea), it may be grouped into: (i) the Arabian Sea drainage; and (ii) the Bay of Bengal drainage. They are separated from each other through the Delhi ridge, the Aravalis and the Sahyadris (water divide is shown by alien in Figure. Nearly 77 per cent of the drainage area consisting of the Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the Mahanadi, the Krishna, etc. is oriented towards the Bay of Bengal while 23 per cent comprising the Indus, the Narmada, the Tapi, the Mahi and the Periyar systems discharge their waters in the Arabian Sea.   On the basis of the size of the watershed, the drainage basins of India are grouped into three categories: (i) Major river basins with more than 20,000 sq. km, of catchment area. It includes 14 drainage basins such as the Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the Krishna, the Tapi, the Narmada, the Mahi, the Pennar, the Sabarmati, the Barak, etc. (ii) Medium river basins with catchment area between 2,000- 20,000 sq. km. incorporating 44 river basins such as the Kalindi, the Periyar, the Meghna, etc. (iii) Minor river basins with catchment area of less than 2,000 sq. km. include fairly good number of rivers flowing in the area of low rainfall.   The Narmada and Tapi are two large rivers which are exceptions. They along with many small rivers discharge their waters in the Arabian Sea.   On the basis of the mode of origin, nature and characteristics, the Indian drainage may also be classified into the Himalayan drainage and the peninsular drainage. Although it has the problem of including the Chambal, the Betwa, more...
Catgeory: UPSC

Climate

Climate       Contents of the Chapter
  • Factors determining the climate of India
  • Mechanism of Weather in the Winter Season
  • Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
  • The Nature of Indian Monsoon
  • Onset of the Monsoon Rain-bearing Systems and Rainfall distribution
  • The Cold Weather Season
  • Role of Westerly Jet Stream
  • The Southwest Monsoon Season
  • Monsoon Winds of the Bay of Bengal
  • Characteristics of Monsoonal Rainfall
  • Season of Retreating Monsoon
  • Distribution of Rainfall
    Climate refers to the sum total of weather conditions and variations over a large area for a long period of time (more than thirty years). Weather refers to the state of the atmosphere over an area at any point of time.   The elements of weather and climate are the same, i.e. temperature atmospheric pressure, wind, humidity and precipitation. You may have observed that the weather conditions fluctuate very often even within a day. But there is some common pattern over a few weeks or months, i.e. days are cool or hot, windy or calm, cloudy or bright, and wet or dry. On the basis of the generalized monthly atmospheric conditions, the year is divided into seasons such as winter, summer or rainy seasons.   During the summer season the desert area of Rajasthan witnesses \[50\underset{-}{\mathop{{}^\circ }}\,\] temperature whereas Pahalgam sector of Jammu and Kashmir has \[20\underset{-}{\mathop{{}^\circ }}\,C\] temperature. During winter nights Dras sector of Jammu and Kashmir witnesses - \[45\underset{-}{\mathop{{}^\circ }}\,C\] temperature where as Thiruvananthpuram has \[20\underset{-}{\mathop{{}^\circ }}\,C.\]   Rainfall also varies in terms of quantity and distribution in the regions of Himalaya rainfall is in the from of snowy balls where as in the rest of part of India it is a general rain. Again annual rainfall varies from \[400\underset{-}{\mathop{{}^\circ }}\,C.\] in the Meghalaya to \[10\underset{-}{\mathop{{}^\circ }}\,c\]in Ladakh and West Rajasthan. In the coastal area the variation of rainfall is less. Whereas in the inner part of country the seasonal variation is more. Accordingly the Indians show their unity in diversity in terms of food, clothing, housing and culture.   Factors Determining the Climate of India India’s climate is controlled by a number of factors which can be broadly divided into two group- (a) factors related to location and relief, and (b) factors related to air pressure and winds.   (a) Factors related to Location and Relief Latitude: You know that the Tropic of Cancer passes through the central part of India in east-west direction. This, northern part of the India lies in sub-tropical and temperature zone and the part lying south the Tropic of Cancer falls in the tropical zone. The tropical zone being nearer to the equator, experiences high temperatures throughout the year with small daily and annual range. Area north of the Tropic of Cancer being away from the equator, experiences extreme climate with high daily and annual range of temperature.   The Himalayan Mountains: The towering mountain chain provides an invincible shield to protect the subcontinent form the cold northern winds. The Himalayas also trap more...
Catgeory: UPSC

Natural Vegetation

Natural Vegetation       Contents of the Chapter
  • Types of Forests
  • Tropical Evergreen and Semi Evergreen Forests
  • Tropical Deciduous Forests
  • Tropical Thorn Forests
  • Montane Forests
  • Littoral and Swamp Forests
  • Forest cover in India
  • Forest Conservation
  • Social Forestry
  • Farm Forestry
  • Wildlife
  • Wildlife Conservation in India
  • Biosphere Reserves
  • Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve
  • Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve
  • Sunderbans Biosphere Reserve
  • Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve
    Natural vegetation refers to a plant community that has been left undisturbed over a long time. So as to allow its individual species to adjust themselves to climate and soil conditions as fully as possible.   India is a land of great variety of natural vegetation. Himalayan heights are marked with temperate vegetation; the Western Ghats and the Andaman Nicobar Islands have tropical rain forests, the deltaic regions have tropical forests and mangroves; the desert and semi desert areas of Rajasthan are known for cacti, a wide variety of bushes and thorny vegetation.   Depending upon the variations in the climate and the soil, the vegetation of India changes from one region to another.   On the basis of certain common features such as predominant vegetation type and climate regions, Indian forests can be divided into the following groups:   Types of Forests
  • Tropical Evergreen and Semi Evergreen forests
 
  • Tropical Deciduous forests
 
  • Tropical Thorn forests
 
  • Montane forests
 
  • Littoral and Swamp forests.
  Tropical Evergreen and Semi Evergreen Forests These forests are found in the western slope of the Western Ghats, hills of the northeastern region and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. They are found in warm and humid areas with an annual precipitation of over 200 cm and mean annual temperature above \[22\underset{-}{\mathop{{}^\circ }}\,\,C.\] Tropical evergreen forests are well stratified, with layers closer to the ground and are covered with shrubs and creepers, with short structured trees followed by tall variety of trees. In these forests, trees reach great heights up to 60 m or above. There is no definite time for trees to shed their leaves, flowering and fruition. As such these forests appear green all the year round. Species found in these forests include rosewood, mahogany, aini, ebony, etc.   The semi evergreen forests are found in the less rainy parts of these regions. Such forests have a mixture of evergreen and moist deciduous trees. The under growing climbers provide an evergreen character to these forests. Main species are white cedar, hillock and kail.   The British were aware of the economic value of the forests 1-n India, hence, large scale exploitation of these forests was started. The structure of forests was also changed. The oak forests in Garhwal and Kumaon were replaced by pine (chirs) which was needed to Jay railway lines. Forests were also cleared for introducing plantations of tea, rubber and coffee. The British also used timber of construction activities as more...
Catgeory: UPSC

Soils

Soils       Contents of the Chapter
  • Classification of Soils
  • Alluvial Soils
  • Black Soil
  • Red and Yellow Soil
  • Laterite Soil
  • Arid Soils Saline Soils
  • Peaty Soils
  • Forest Soils
  • Soil Degradation
  • Soil Erosion
  • Soil Conservation
  • Water Resources
  • Water Resources of India
  • Surface Water Resources
  • Groundwater Resources
  • Demand of Water for Irrigation
  • Prevention of Water Pollution
  • Watershed Management
  • Rainwater Harvesting
  • Highlights of India’s National Water Policy, 2002
    Soil is the most important layer of the earth’s crust. It is a valuable resource.   Soil is the mixture of rock debris and organic materials which develop on the earth’s surface. The major factors affecting the formation of soil are relief, parent material, climate, vegetation and other life-forms and time. Besides these, human activities also influence it to a large extent. Components of the soil are mineral particles, humus, water and air. The actual amount of each of these depend upon the type of soil. Some soils are deficient in one or more of these, while there are some others that have varied combinations. If we dig a pit on land and look at the soil, we find that it consists of three layers which are called horizons. ‘Horizon A’ is the topmost zone, where organic materials have got incorporated with the mineral matter, nutrients and water, which are necessary for the growth of plants. ‘Horizon B’ is a transition zone between the ‘horizon A’ and ‘horizon C’, and contains matter derived from below as well as from above. It has some organic matter in it, although the mineral matter is noticeably weathered. 'Horizon C is composed of the loose parent material. This layer is the first stage in the soil formation process and eventually forms the above two layers. This arrangement of layers is known as the soil profile. Underneath these three horizons is the rock which is also known as the parent rock or the bedrock. Soil, which is a complex and varied entity, has always drawn the attention of the scientists.   Classification of Soils India has varied relief features, landforms, climatic realms and vegetation types. These have contributed in the development of various types of soils in India.   ICAR has classified the soils of India into the following order as per the USDA soil taxonomy more...
Catgeory: UPSC

Land use and Agriculture

Land use and Agriculture       Contents of the Chapter
  • Land-use Changes in India
  • Agricultural Land Use in India
  • Primitive Subsistence Farming
  • Intensive Substance Farming
  • Commercial Farming
  • Types of Farming
  • Cropping Pattern
  • Growth of Agricultural Output and Technology
    Different types of lands are suited to different uses. Human beings thus, use land as a resource for production as well as residence and recreation.   Land-use records maintained by land revenue department. The land use categories add up to reporting area, which is somewhat different from the geographical area. The Survey of India is responsible for measuring geographical area of administrative units in India. The difference between the two concepts are that while the former changes somewhat depending on the estimates of the land revenue records, the latter does not change and stays fixed as per Survey of India measurements.   The land-use categories as maintained in the Land Revenue are as follows:  
  • (i) Forests: It is important to note that area under actual forest cover is different from area classified as forest. The latter is the area which the Government has identified and demarcated for forest growth. The land revenue records are consistent with the latter definition. Thus, there may be an increase in this category without any increase in the actual forest cover.
 
  • Land put to Non-agricultural Uses: Land under settlements (rural and urban), Infrastructure (roads, canals, etc.); industries, shops, etc. are Included in this category. An expansion in the secondary and tertiary activities would lead to an increase in this category of land-use.
 
  • Barren and Wastelands: The land which may be classified as a wasteland such as barren hilly terrains, desert lands, ravines, etc. normally cannot be brought under cultivation with the available technology.
 
  • Area under Permanent pastures and Grazing Lands: Most of this type land is owned by the village ‘Panchayat’ or the Government. Only a small proportion of this land is privately owned. The land owned by the village panchayat comes under ‘Common Property Resources’.
 
  • Area under Miscellaneous Tree Crops and Gove’s (Not included is Net sown Area): The land under orchards and fruit trees are included in this category. Much of this Sand is privately owned.
 
  • Culturable Waste-Land: Any land which is left fallow (uncultivated) for more than five years is included in this category. It can be brought under cultivation after improving it through reclamation practices.
 
  • Current Fallow: This is the land which is left without cultivation for one or less than one agricultural year. Following is a cultural practice adopted for giving the land rest. The land recoups the lost fertility through natural processes.
 
  • Fallow other than Current Fallow: This is also a cultivable land which is left uncultivated for more than five years, it more...
Catgeory: UPSC

Mineral and Energy Resources

Mineral and Energy Resources       Contents of the Chapter
  • Mode of Occurrence of Minerals
  • Agencies Involved in the exploration of minerals
  • Distribution of Minerals in India
  • Major Industries
  • The Iron and Steel Industry
  • Integrated Steel Plants
  • Visvesvaraiya Iron and Steel Works Ltd. (VISL)
  • Rourkela Steel Plant
  • Bhilai Steel Plant
  • The Cotton Textile Industry
    India is endowed with a rich variety of mineral resources due to its varied geological structure. Bulk of the valuable minerals are products of pre-Paleozoic age mainly associated with metamorphic and igneous rocks of the peninsular India. The vast alluvial plain tract of north India is devoid of minerals of economic use.   The mineral resources provide the country with the necessary base for industrial development. The availability of various types of mineral and energy resources in the country.   Mode of Occurrence of Minerals   Minerals generally occur in these forms:  
  • In igneous and metamorphic rocks minerals may occur in the cracks, crevices, faults or joints. The smaller occurrences are called veins and the larger are called lodes. In most cases, they are formed when minerals in liquid/molten and gaseous forms are forced upward through cavities towards the earth’s surface. They cool and solidify as they rise. Major metallic minerals like tin, copper, zinc etc.
 
  • In sedimentary rocks a number of minerals occur in beds or layers. They have been formed as a result of deposition, accumulation and concentration in horizontal strata. Coal and some forms of iron ore have been concentrated as a result of long periods under great heat and pressure. Another group of sedimentary minerals include gypsum. Potash salt and sodium salt. These are formed as a result of evaporation especially in arid regions.
 
  • Another mode of formation involves the decomposition of surface rocks, and the removal of soluble constituents, leaving a residual mass of weathered material containing ores. Bauxite is formed this way.
 
  • Certain minerals may occur as alluvial deposits in sands of valley floors and the base of hills. These deposits are called ‘placer deposits’ and generally contain minerals, which are not corroded by water. Gold, silver, tin and platinum are most important among such minerals.
 
  • The ocean waters contain vast quantities of minerals, but most of these are too widely diffused to be of economic significance. However, common salt, magnesium and bromine are largely derived from ocean waters. The ocean beds, too, are rich in manganese nodules.
  Rat-Hole Mining. Do you know that most of the minerals in India are nationalized and their extraction is possible only after obtaining due permission from the government? But in most of the tribal areas of the north-east India, minerals are owned by individuals or communities. In Meghalaya, there are large deposits of coal, iron ore, limestone and dolomite etc. Coal mining in Jowal and Cherapunjee is done more...
Catgeory: UPSC

Sugar Industry

Sugar Industry       Contents of the Chapter
  • Location of the Sugar Industry
  • Petrochemical Industries
  • Knowledge based Industries
  • Liberalization, Privatization, Globalization (LPG) and Industrial Development in India
  • Industrial Region and Districts
  • Industrial Regions in India
  • Mumbai-Pune Industrial Region
  • Hugli Industrial Region
  • Bangalore-Chennai Industrial Region
  • Gujarat Industrial Region
  • Chotanagpur Region
  • Vishakhapatnam-Guntur Region
  • Kollam-Tiruvanantapuram Region
    The sugar industry is the second most important agro-based industry in the country. India is the largest producer of both sugarcane and cane sugar and contributes about 8 per cent of the total sugar production in the world. Besides, khandasari and gur or jaggery are also prepared from sugarcane. This industry provides employment for more than 4 lakh persons directly and a large number of farmers indirectly. Sugar industry is a seasonal industry because of the seasonality of raw materials.   Development of the industry on modern lines dates back to 1903, when a sugar mill was started in Bihar. Subsequently, sugar mills were started in other parts of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. In 1950-51, 139 factories were in operation producing 11.34 lakh tons of sugar. The number of sugar factories rose to 506 and production to 176, 99 lakh tones in 2000-01.   Location of the Sugar Industry Sugarcane is a weight-losing crop. The ratio of sugar to sugarcane varies between 9 to 12 per cent depending on its variety. Its sucrose content begins to dry during haulage after it has been harvested from the field. Better recovery of sugar is dependent upon its being crushed within 24 hours of its harvesting. Sugar factories hence, are located within the cane producing regions.   Maharashtra has emerged as a leading sugar producer in the country and produces more than one-third of the total production of the sugar in the country. There are 119 sugar mills in the state in a narrow belt extending from Manmad in the north to Kolhapur in the south. There are 87 mills in the cooperative sector.   Uttar Pradesh is the second largest producer of sugar. The sugar factories are concentrated in two belts- the Ganga-Yamuna doab and the taria region. The major sugar producing centres in the Ganga- Yamuna doab are Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar, Meerut, Ghaziabad, Baghpat and Bulandshehr districts; while Kheri Lakhimpur, Basti, Gonda, Gorakhpur, Bahraich are important sugar producing districts in the Tarai region.   In Tamil Nadu, sugar factories are located in Coimbatore, Vellore, Tiruvanamalai, Villupuram and Tiruchchirappalli districts. Belgaum, Bellary, Mandya, Shimoga, Bijapur, and Chitradurg districts are the major producers in Karnataka. The industry is distributed in the coastal regions i.e. East Godavari, West Godavari, Vishakhapatnam districts and Nizamabad, and Medak districts of Telangana along with Chittoor district of Rayalseema.   The other States which produce sugar are Bihar, Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. Saran, Champaran, Muzaffarnagar, Siwan, Darbhanga, and Gaya are the important sugarcane producing districts in Bihar. The relative significance of Punjab has declined, although Gurdaspur, Jalandhar, Sangarur, Patiala and Amritsar are major sugar producers. In more...
Catgeory: UPSC

Transport and Communication

Transport and Communication       Contents of the Chapter
  • Land Transport
  • Indian Road Network (2005)
  • Rural Boards
  • Other Roads
  • National Highways Development Projects
  • Rail Transport
  • Water Transport
  • Inland Waterways
  • Oceanic Routes
  • Air Transportation
  • History of Indian Airlines
  • Mass Communication System
  • International Trade
  • Direction of Trade
  • Ports Tourism as a Trade
    The use of transport and communication depends upon our need to move things from place of their availability to the place of their use.   Land Transport Road Transport: India has one of the largest road network in the world with a total length of 33.1 lakh km (2005). About 85 per cent of passenger and 70 per cent of freight traffic are carried by roads every year. Road transport is relatively suitable for shorter distance travel.   Road transport in modern sense was very limited in India before World War-II. The first serious attempt was made in 1934 when ‘Nagpur Plan’ was drawn.   The plan could not be implemented due to lack of coordination among the princely states and British India. After Independence, twenty-year road plan (1961) was introduced to improve the conditions of roads in India. However, roads continue to concentrate in and around urban centres. Rural and remote areas had the least connectivity by road. For the purpose of construction and maintenance, roads are classified as National Highways (NH), States Highways (SH), Major District Roads and Rural Roads.   National Highways: The main roads which are constructed and maintained by the Central Government are known as the National Highways. These roads are meant for inter-state transport and movement of defence men and material in strategic areas. These also connect the states capitals, major cities, important ports, railway junctions, etc. The length of the National Highways has increased from 19,700 km in 1951 to 65,769 km in 2005. The National Highways constitute only two per cent of the total road length but carry 40 per cent of the road traffic.   The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) was operationalized in 1995. It is an autonomous body under the Ministry of Surface Transport. It is entrusted with the responsibility of development, maintenance and operation of National Highways. This is also apex body to improve the quality of the roads designated as National Highways.     Indian Road Network (2005) State Highways: These are constructed and maintained by state governments. They join the state capitals with district headquarters and other important towns. These roads are connected to the National Highways. These constitute 4 per cent of total road length in the country.  
S. No. Order Area (In thousand hectares) Percentage
(i) Inceptisols 130372.90 39.74
(ii) Entisols 92131.71 28.08
(iii) Alfisols 44448.68 13.55
(iv) Vertisols 27960.00 8.52
(v) Aridisols 14069.00 4.28
No. Road No. Length in Category % of km total road length
1.       National Highway 65,789 2
2.       State Highway 1,28,1000 more...
Catgeory: UPSC

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