Category : Teaching
Learning through Problem Solving and Constructivism, Memory and Forgetting
PROBLEM SOLVING
Problem solving means arriving at solution of tasks or situations that are complex or ambiguous with difficulties or obstacles of some kind. Problem solving is needed, for example, when a doctor analyzes a lung X-ray: a picture of lungs requires skill, experience, and resourcefulness to decide which obscure-looking blobs to ignore, and which to interpret as real structures. Problem solving is also needed when a store manager has to decide how to improve the sales of his product: should she price it lower or publicize it more through advertisements.
Most often, when two children take their problem to an adult to solve for them and the adult "steps in" without invitation, the adult has assumed ownership of the problem. When the adult makes an independent judgment, it usually results in a win-lose situation. One child gets what he wants, the other doesn't. However, by guiding children through a series of problem solving steps, the adult can teach students how to solve their own problems and make better decisions so it's a win-win situation.
Teachers help their students solve problems and make better decisions through a six step process.
Step 1: Define the problem or situation. Good solutions are dependent on precise identification of the problem at hand. Questions that should be asked at the start include "What is going on here?" "What problems do we have?' "What exactly do we need to do to solve?" and "is there another grave problem here?"
Step 2: Generate alternatives. Once the problem is identified and clarified, a host of feasible solutions should be generated. To think of ideas, questions such as the following are normally helpful: "What can be done differently?" What rules or procedures should be followed?" "Let's see how many ideas we can generate" and "Are there more solutions we can think of?"
Step 3: Evaluate the alternatives: Participants comment on the alternatives generated the goal is to choose a solution which has a consensus. It is appropriate to take an opinion of others on each alternative. "What do you think of this alternative or solution?" "What are its pros and cons?" "What problems does it leave unsolved?" and "if we try this idea, what can be the outcome?"
Step 4: Make the decision. After examining the alternatives, the one that seems to fit the best is selected for trial.
Step 5: Implement the solution or decision. The trial solution is put into execution with the understanding that it may or may not work as expected and that it can be altered if necessary.
Step 6: Conduct a follow-up evaluation. The results of the trial solution are analyzed arid evaluated. Some useful questions include "Was this a good decision?" "Did it actually solve the problem?" "Is everyone happy with the decision" and "How effective was our decision?" If the solution or decision is judged to be satisfactory/ it is retained. If not, a modified or new solution is proposed and put to the test.
Problem solving in the classroom
Problem solving happens in classrooms when teachers present tasks or challenges that are deliberately complex and for which finding a solution is not straightforward or obvious. The responses of students to such problems, as well as the strategies for assisting them, show the key features of problem solving.
Well-structured versus ill-structured problems
Problems vary in how much information they provide for solving a problem, as well as in how many rules or procedures are needed for a solution.
A well-structured problem provides much of the information needed and can in principle be solved using relatively few clearly understood rules. These are simple and well-defined. Classic examples are the word problems often taught in math lessons or classes: everything you need to know is contained within the stated problem and the solution procedures are relatively clear and precise. A well-defined problem is one that has a clear goal, a specific path to the solution and clearly visible obstacles based on the information given. For example
There are a set number of possible solutions ? and solutions are either 100% right or 100% wrong. An example of a well-structured problem is a typical mathematical (2 + 2 =?) question. This question has a definitive "correct" answer.
Well-defined problems can be solved using a formula or algorithm; a step-by- step process that will always produce the correct result.
In contrast, an ill-structured problem has the converse qualities: the information is not necessarily within the problem, solution procedures are potentially quite numerous, and a multiple solutions are likely. Extreme examples are problems like "How can the world achieve lasting peace?" or "How can teachers insure that students learn?" Ill-defined problems are not clear-cut. There is no obvious path to the solution. These problems require investigation to define, understand and solve. Problems may have many possible answers because they are complex and ill-defined. The "best" solutions to ill-defined problems depend on the priorities underlying the situation. What is "best" today may not be "best" tomorrow. Ill-structured problems, because they are more difficult to "solve," require the development of higher order thinking skills.
An example of an ill-structured problem would be "How can we maximize water resources in our area?" In this real-life problem more than 20 solutions were proposed and local area authorities were asked to weigh the solutions.
Strategies to assist problem solving
Just as there are cognitive blockages to problem solving, there are also general strategies that help the process be successful, regardless of the specific content of a problem. One helpful strategy is problem analysis?identifying the parts of the problem, and working on each part separately. Analysis is especially useful when a problem is ill-structured. Consider this problem, for example: "If the plan to improve bicycle transportation in the city." Solving this problem is easier if you identify its parts such as (1) building bicycle lanes on busy streets, (2) educating cyclists and motorists to ride safely, (3) fixing potholes on streets used by cyclists, and (4) altering traffic laws that intervene with cycling. Each separate sub-problem is more manageable than the original problem. The solution of each sub-problem contributes the solution of the whole.
Another helpful strategy is working backward from a final solution to the originally stated problem. This approach is especially helpful when a problem is well-structured but also has elements that are distracting or misleading when approached in a forward, normal direction.
A third helpful strategy is analogical thinking?using knowledge or experiences with similar features to solve the problem at hand. In planning to improve bicycle ride in the city, for example, an analogy of cars with bicycles is helpful in thinking of solutions: improving conditions for both cars and bicycles requires many of the same measures that is a better roadway and even educating drivers. Even solving simpler and more rudimentary problems enabled by understanding analogies.
CONSTRUCTIVISM
Constructivism is "the learner's contribution to meaning and learning through both individual and social activity". Constructivist perspectives are grounded in the research of Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, the Gestalt psychologists, Bruner as well as the educational philosophy of John Dewey.
There is no one constructivist theory of learning. Most of the theories in cognitive science include some kind of constructivism because these theories assume that individuals construct their own cognitive structures as they interpret their experiences in particular situations. One way to organize constructivist views is to talk about two forms of constructivism: psychological and social construction. The focus is on the learner in thinking about learning (not on the subject/lesson to be taught) and no knowledge is independent of the meaning attributed to experience (constructed) by the learner, or community of learners.
Cognitive Constructivism
Social Constructivism
Vygotsky believed that social interaction, cultural tools, and activity shape individual development and learning. By participating in a broad range of activities with others, learners appropriate the outcomes produced by working together; "they acquire new strategies and knowledge of the world and culture".
Putting learning in social and cultural context is '''second wave" constructivism. Because his theory relies heavily on social interactions and the cultural context to explain learning, most psychologists classify Vygotsky as a social constructivist.
There is a great deal of overlap between cognitive constructivism and Vygotsky's social constructivist theory. However, Vygotsky's constructivist theory, which is often called social constructivism, has much more room for an active, involved teacher.
For Vygotsky the culture gives the child the cognitive tools needed for development. The type and quality of those tools determines, to a much greater extent than they do in Piaget's theory, the pattern and rate of development. Adults such as parents and teachers are conduits for the tools of the culture, including language.
The tools the culture provides a child include cultural history, social context, and language. Today they also include electronic forms of information access.
A constructivist teacher does not simply stand by and watch children explore and discover. Instead, the teacher may often guide students as they approach problems, may encourage them to engage in collaborative groups to work on issues and questions, and support them with encouragement and advice as they are solving problems and challenges that are rooted in real life situations. Teachers thus facilitate cognitive growth and learning as do peers and other members of the child's community.
The four important principles applied in any Vygotskian classroom.
1. Learning and development is a social and collaborative activity.
2. The Zone of Proximal Development can serve as a guide for curricular and lesson planning.
3. School learning should occur in a meaningful context and not be separated from learning and knowledge children develop in the "real world".
4. Out-of-school experiences should be related to the child's school experience.
Complex learning environments and authentic tasks
Constructivists believe that students should not be given simplified problems and basic skills drills, but instead should encounter complex learning environments that deal with fuzzy ill-structured problems. Complex problems are not simply difficult ones; they have many parts. There are multiple, interacting elements in complex problems and multiple solutions are possible. There is no one right way of reaching a conclusion and each solution may bring a new set of problems. These complex problems should be embedded in authentic tasks and activities, the kinds of situations that students will face as they apply what they are learning to the real world. Students may need support as they work on these complex problems, with teachers helping them find resources, keeping track of their progress, breaking larger problems down into smaller ones, and so on.
Applications of Constructivist Learning
A very important teaching approach that puts the student in the center is Inquiry and Problem- based learning.
John Dewey described the basic inquiry learning format in 1910. The teacher presents a puzzling event, question, or problem. The students:
(a) Formulate hypotheses to explain the event or solve the problem
(b) Collect data to test the hypotheses
(c) Draw conclusions, and
(d) Reflect on the original problem and the thinking processes needed to solve it.
In problem based learning, students are confronted with a real problem that has meaning for them. This problem launches their inquiry as they collaborate to find solutions. In true problem- based learning, the problem is real and the students' actions matter.
Teacher's role in Problem-Based learning
|
Phase |
Teacher behaviour |
|
Phase 1 Orient student to the problem |
Teacher goes over the objectives of the lesson, describes important logistical requirements and motivates student to engage in self-selected problem-solving activity |
|
Phase 2 Organize student for study |
Teacher helps students define and organize study tasks related to the problem |
|
Phase 3 Assist independent and group investigation |
Teacher encourages students to gather appropriate information, conduct experiments, and search for explanations and solution |
|
Phase 4 Develop and present artifacts and exhibits |
Teacher assists students in planning and preparing appropriate artifacts such as reports, video, and models and helps them share their work with other |
|
Phase 5 Analyze and evaluate the problem-solving process |
Teacher helps student to reflects on their investigation and the processes they used |
MEMORY
Memory is the term given to the structures and processes involved in the storage and subsequent retrieval of information.
According to Matlin, "Memory is the process of maintaining information over time." According to Sternberg" Memory is the means by which we draw on our past experiences in order to use this information in the present".
Memory is involved in processing vast amounts of information. This information takes many different forms, e.g. images, sounds or meaning.
The term memory covers three important aspects of information processing:
1. Memory Encoding
When information comes into our memory system (from sensory input), it needs to be changed into a form that the system can cope with, so that it can be stored. For example, a word which is seen (in a book) may be stored if it is changed (encoded) into a sound or a meaning (i.e. semantic processing).
There are three main ways in which information can be encoded (changed):
1. Visual (picture)
2. Acoustic (sound)
3. Semantic (meaning)
The principle encoding system in long term memory (LTM) appears to be semantic coding (by meaning). However, information in LTM can also be coded both visually and acoustically.
2. Memory Storage
This concerns the nature of memory stores, i.e. where the information is stored, how long the memory lasts for (duration), how much can be stored at any time (capacity) and what kind of information is held. The way we store information affects the way we retrieve it. There has been a significant amount of research regarding the differences between Short Term Memory (STM) and Long Term Memory (LTM). Information can only be stored for a brief duration in STM (0-30 seconds), but LTM can last a lifetime.
3. Memory Retrieval
This refers the process through which information stored in memory is located. If we can't remember something, it may be because we are unable to retrieve it. When we are asked to retrieve something from memory, the differences between STM and LTM become very clear. STM is stored and retrieved sequentially. LTM is stored and retrieved by association. Organising information can help aid retrieval. You can organise information in sequences (such as alphabetically, by size or by time).
Types of Information in Memory
1. Semantic Memory: Semantic memory is the sum total of each person's general, abstract knowledge about the world. Semantic memory allows us to represent and mentally operate on objects or situations that are not present to our senses.
2. Episodic Memory: A type of information we retain involves specific events that we have experienced personally. This is known as episodic memory. Sometimes it is called autobiographical memory. These memories allow as to travel back in time.
3. Procedural Memory: A memory system that retains information we cannot readily express verbally for instance, information necessary to perform skilled motor activities such as riding a bicycle.
4. Sensory Memory: A memory system that retains representations of sensory input for brief period of time. This memory holds fleeting representations of our sensory experiences.
5. Short-term memory: This type of memory is also called as temporary memory. It holds limited amounts of information for relatively short period of time. The information temporarily stored in short-term memory may last as long as thirty seconds even if the material is not being rehearsed. The existence of short-term memory is supported by the finding that words near either end of a list are remembered better than words near the middle. This effect is known as the Serial Position Curve.
6. Long term memory: This is also known as Permanent Memory. Here the individual learns and retains large amount of information for a very long period of time. There is an interval of time between learning and recall or reproduction. Flashbulb memories are types of long-term memories connected to dramatic events in our lives.
Other types of information in Memory:
Some of the important types of memory are as follows.
1. Immediate memory: Immediate memory is that which helps us to learn a thing immediately with speed and accuracy, remembering it for a short time and forgetting rapidly after use. E.g. seat number of cinema hall.
2. Permanent memory: Permanent memory helps us to remember a thing permanently, e.g. remembering our name.
3. Rote memory: Under rote memory, the things are learnt without understanding their meaning.
4. Logical memory: Logical memory is based on logical thinking. It takes into consideration purposeful and insightful learning.
5. Associated memory: The memory which helps to associate the previously learned things with so many related things and then establish multiple connections is known as associated memory.
6. Active memory: In active memory one has to remain active and make deliberate attempts for recollecting the past experiences.
7. Passive memory: Here the past experiences are recalled spontaneously without any serious attempt
Span of Memory
The amount of material that can be immediately reproduced after one repetition is called span of memory. The phenomenon of memory may be studied under four different aspects: viz the four R's.
1. Registration or Learning
2. Retention
3. Recall
4. Recognition
1. Registration or Learning: Before remembering, it must be registered or learnt. Learning requires time. The most efficient methods of learning or memorising that would yield the best results from the point of view of remembering effectively for a long time are as follows:
A. Rote Memorisation: This is learning without understanding. Yet meaningful material is easily learnt than non-sense material. It is easier to learn poetry than prose; prose is easier to learn than disconnected words. Disconnected words are easier to learn than nonsense words. Thus logical sequence is important, along with the systematic arrangement of ideas. However, mechanical learning must be avoided as it is less effective.
B. Spaced VIS Mass Learning: In spaced learning, the learner has been allowed some rest in memorisation. The subject is not required to memorise the assignment in one continuous time period. Intervals are provided. The Principle of 'work & rest' is followed. In mass learning, the subject has to memorise the assigned material at one sitting without any interval or rest, until it is mastered. Mass learning is effective when the pupils are very intelligent or are highly motivated.
C. Whole verses Part Learning: When the material is read again & again from start to finish, this is whole method of learning. This method can be adopted when the material is not very lengthy and when the material is logically arranged. When material is broken down to parts or stanzas and then leamt, this is part method of learning thus slow learners and average students are benefitted. The learner is motivated each time he masters the parts.
D. Recitation: The best method of learning is when the student reads the lesson few times and then reviews the lesson without the book i.e. he recites the material leant to him. Studies have shown that self-recitation is better and time saving than just reading and re- reading because permanent retention is achieved. Learner is able to detect his weakness and rectify them. Thus he knows his progress as well.
2. Retention: 'Retention is the inactive state of learnt activity. The learning activity leaves a mark on the brain structure. This mark is called a 'Memory Trace' which is imprinted on the Cerebral Cortex. This preservation of the memory trace in the brain is retaining of the learning activity. This can be compared to the traces or marks in the sand e.g. our footprints made on the sand. The deeper the trace, the longer the retention, while the weak traces slowly fade away.
Memory can be improved, but the depth of the trace or retention is difficult to improve by practice/ the reason being the traces that are made, depend on the genetic inheritance. Retention however can be measured in three ways:
(a) Recall (b) Recognition & (c) Relearning.
3. Recall: The third aspect of memory is recall. We learn because we need to recall them at some point of time or other. So we can say that recall is the mental revival of past experiences. It is the least index of retention because we are unable to remember even though we know it. Recall depends on the mental condition and the memory trace formed,
4. Recognition: Recall and recognition are closely related. Recall provides the material in memory, while recognition is the process of accepting or rejecting. Recognition is better than recall as an index of retention. Recognition starts with the object given whereas recalls find the object from the mind. Thus, when we meet a person, recognise that person's face, but may not be able to recall his name. Recognition is more a passive behaviour than an active process like recall.
Retrieval
The process of retrieval involves our ability to locate information that has previously been stored in memory. Retrieval cues are stimuli associated with information stored in memory that can aid in its retrieval.
Improving Your Memory
There are some specific aids to memory are available.
MNEMONICS: Mnemonics (pronounced "nemoniks") refers to specific memory improvement technique. Most mnemonic techniques rely on the linking as association.
The method of Loci: The word Loci means "Places". The memory pegs in this system are parts of your image of a scene. The scene can be a buildings, a hotel, kitchen, the layout of a college campus. These scenes can be visualized clearly and contains a number of discrete items in specific locations of serve as memory pegs.
Number and Letter Peg Systems: The main idea of this system is to establish a well organised set of images to which the to-be remembered items can be linked.
We have all had experiences in which we could not remember some item or piece of information. We often feel that the fact, name or item we want is somewhere "in there" but lies just beyond our reach. This is known as the "tip-of-the tongue phenomenon". How does information enter long-term memory from short-term memory? The answer seems to involve a process that is rehearsal. Rather, for information to enter long-term memory, elaborative rehearsal seems to be required. It is a rehearsal in which the meaning of information is considered and the information is related to other knowledge already present in memory.
Entering Information into Long-term Memory
In number systems, you form an image with each number. In letter systems you can establish mnemonic pegs by forming strong, distinctive images of words that start with the sounds of the letters of the alphabet.
Stories You Tell Yourself: A made-up story is a useful mnemonic device to list of unrelated items to remember. The story starts with the first item on the list, and in order, each succeeding item is worked in. It is a form of elaborative encoding.
Chunking: This mnemonic technique is a systematic way of encoding information. Suppose you want to remember your credit-card number 19471601914, for example. It will help if you break the number into chunks.
In this example, the first four numbers may remind you of an important date in history (the date of the Independence of India), the next three numbers can also be "chunked" as a date, while the last four numbers form a chunk that is easy to remember by itself.
FORGETTING
According to Bhatia: "Forgetting is the failure of an individual to review in consciousness an idea or a group of ideas without the help of original stimulus."
It is not surprising that the first systematic research on memory/ conducted by Ebbinghaus, was concerned with forgetting. Ebbinghaus experimented on himself and studied the rate at which lie forgot nonsense syllables. The result of his investigations suggested that forgetting is rapid at first but slows down with the passage of time.
1. The Trace Decay Hypothesis
Forgetting is a process of fading of the learnt matter with passage of time. According to this view, the vivid impressions and information created in the cerebral cortex fade away as time passes. Information we acquired quite some time ago is more difficult to remember than information learned only recently. But decay is probably not the key mechanism in forgetting.
2. Forgetting As a Result of Interference
Forgetting is not a function of the passage of time and the weakening of material stored in memory. Forgetting occurs due to interference between items of information stored in memory. Interference can take two different forms.
(a) Retroactive Interference: Here new learned information interferes with old information present in memory.
(b) Proactive Interference: When previously learned information interferes with the new information. Forgetting in our daily life is more due to proactive interference; our ability to recall what we have leant is reduced by experiences previously leant.
3. Theory of Repression or Motivated Forgetting
Forgetting is a psychological process/ whereby will the unpleasant or conflicting experiences are repressed and pushed into the unconscious and forgotten. Thus repression is done because it may cause anxiety to remember the experiences e.g. remembering loved ones whom we will never see again, we want to forget those people who hurt us.
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