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Learning Principles in EVS

 

Learning is acquiring new or modifying and reinforcing, existing knowledge, behaviour, skills, values or preferences and may involve synthesising different types of information. The ability to learn is possessed by humans, animals and some machines.

 

3.1 Learning: Meaning and Definition

Progress over time tends to follow learning curves. Learning is not compulsory, it is contextual. It does not happen all at once, but builds upon and is shaped by what we already know. To that end, learning may be viewed as a process, rather than a collection of factual and procedural knowledge. Learning produces changes in the organism and the changes produced are relatively permanent.

Human learning may occur as part of education, personal development, schooling or training. It may be goal-oriented and may be aided by motivation.

Various psychologists gave different definitions of learning, which are as follow

According to Woodworth, "The process of acquiring new knowledge and new response is the process of learning".

According to JP Guilford, "Learning is any change in behaviour resulting from behaviour".

According to Robert Gagne, "A change in human disposition or capability that persists over a period of time and is not simply ascribable to processes of growth".

 

3.1.1 Characteristics of Learning

 

Characteristics of learning are given below

·               All children are naturally motivated to learn and are capable of learning.

·               Children learn in a variety of ways-through experience, doing things, experimentation, reading, discussion, asking, listening, thinking and reflecting and expressing oneself by speech or writing both individually and with others.

·               Learning takes place both within school and outside school. Learning is enriched if these two arenas interact with each other. Art and work provide opportunities for holistic learning that is rich in tacit and aesthetic components.

·               Learning must be paced so that it allows learners to engage with concepts and deepen the understanding. At the same time, learning must provide variety and challenge and must be interesting and engaging.

 

·               In view of getting a complete picture of the child's learning, assessment should focus on the learner's ability to

·               learn and acquire desired skills related to different subject areas.

·               monitor changes taking place in child's learning, behaviour and progress over a period of time.

·               respond to different situations and opportunities both in and out of school.

·               apply what is learnt in a variety of circumstances and situations, work independently, collaboratively and harmoniously.

·               analyse and evaluate.  

·               be aware of social and environmental issues.

·               participate in social and environmental projects.

·               retain what is learned over a period of time.

 

3.1.2 Nature of Learning                              

The nature of learning is described below

·               Learning is a life-long process.

·               Learning is a indicator of universalisation.  

·               Learning is a symbol of development.

·               Learning is a continuous change.

·               Learning is a process of adaptation.

·               Learning is a judicious work.

·               Learning is individual as well as sociable.

·               Learning is a kind of research.

 

3.1.3 Different Forms of Learning

 

Some different forms of learning are given as under

1.        Conceptual Learning

·               It is a kind of learning about the subject or matter in detail about its principle or ideas but after learning students start thinking in abstract term. Through this, students learn to organise information and facts about anything in logical structure. It provides analytical character to a student.

 

2.         this behaviour/habit in order to be appreciated and feel the same feeling in his mind.

 

         3.      Perceptual Learning

·               It is a kind of learning in which students learn by sense that his sense organ and brain is able to perceive and record about the various things, events, incident, experience etc.

 

         4.      Associative Learning

It is a kind of learning in which a child frames a new memory about an object, entity, event, incident etc by linking with already existing memory in his mind.

 

3.1.4 Principles of Learning

Some of the important principle of learning in EVS are explained in detail below

 

          1.      Nature of the Learning Process

·               The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional process of constructing meaning from information and experience.

·               Successful learners are active, goal-directed, self-regulating and assume personal responsibility for contributing to their own learning.

 

          2.      Goals of the Learning Process

·               The successful learner, over the time with support and instructional guidance, can create meaningful and coherent representations of knowledge.

·               The strategic nature of learning requires students to be goal directed. Initially, students' short-term goals and learning may be sketchy in an area, but over time, their understanding can be refined by filling gaps, resolving inconsistencies and deepening their understanding of the subject matter so that they can reach longer-term goals.

 

         3.      Construction of Knowledge

·               The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways.

Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build links between new information and experiences and their existing knowledge base.

·               However, unless new knowledge becomes integrated with the learner's prior knowledge and understanding, this new knowledge remains isolated and cannot be used most effectively in new tasks.

·               Educators can assist learners in acquiring and integrating knowledge by a number of strategies that have-been shown to be effective with learners of varying abilities, such as concept mapping and thematic organisation or categorising.

 

         4.      Strategic Thinking

·               The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals.

·               Successful learners use strategic thinking in their approach to learning, reasoning, problem solving and concept learning. Learning outcomes can be enhanced if educators assist learners in developing, applying and assessing their strategic learning skills.

 

        5.      Thinking About Thinking

Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set reasonable learning or performance goals, select potentially appropriate learning strategies or methods and monitor their progress toward these goals.

 

         6.      Context of Learning

·               Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology and instructional practices. Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Teachers has major interactive role with both the learner and the learning environment.

·               Cultural or group influences on students can impact many educationally relevant variables, such as motivation, orientation towards learning and ways of thinking.

 

          7.      Motivational and Emotional Influences on Learning

·               What and how much is learned is influenced by the motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the individual's emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals and habits of thinking.

·               Positive emotions, such as curiosity, generally enhance motivation and facilitate learning and performance.

·               Mild anxiety can also enhance learning and performance by focusing the learner's attention on a particular task.

·               However, intense negative emotions (e.g. anxiety, panic, rage, insecurity) and related thoughts (e.g. worrying about competence, ruminating about failure, fearing punishment, ridicule or stigmatising labels) generally detract from motivation, interfere with learning and contribute to low performance.

 

        8.     Intrinsic Motivation to Learn

·            The learner's creativity, higher order thinking and natural curiosity all contribute to their motivation to learn.

·            Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty. Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking and creativity are major indicators of the learners' intrinsic motivation to learn.

·            Intrinsic motivation is facilitated on tasks that learners perceive as interesting and personally relevant and meaningful, appropriate in complexity and difficulty to the learners' abilities, and on which they believe they can succeed.

·            Intrinsic motivation is also facilitated on tasks that are comparable to real-world situations and meet needs for choice and control.

 

        9.     Effects of Motivation on Effort

·            Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort and guided practice. Effort is another major indicator of motivation to learn.

·            The acquisition of complex knowledge and skills demands, the investment of considerable learners energy and strategic effort, along with persistence over time.

 

        10.   Developmental Influences on Learning

·            Learning is most effective, when differential development within and across physical, intellectual, emotional and social domains is taken into account.

·            Individuals learn best when material is appropriate to their developmental level and is presented in an enjoyable and interesting way.

·               Over emphasis on one type of developmental readiness such as reading readiness, e.g. may preclude learners from demonstrating that they are more capable in other areas of performance.

·               The cognitive, emotional and social development of individual learners and how they interpret life experiences are affected by prior schooling, home, culture and community factors.

 

          11.    Social Influences on Learning

·               Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations and communication with others. Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to interact and to collaborate with others on instructional tasks.

·               Learning should allow social interactions respect diversity, encourage flexible thinking and social competence.

·               In interactive and collaborative instructional contexts, individuals have an opportunity for perspective taking and reflective thinking that may lead to higher levels of cognitive, social and moral development as well as self-esteem.

·               Quality personal relationships provide stability, trust, care, increase learners' sense of belonging, self-respect and self-acceptance.

 

          12.    Individual Differences in Learning

·               Learners have different strategies, approaches and capabilities for learning and they are a function of prior experience and heredity. Individuals are born with acquired heredity from their parents and develop their own capabilities and talents.

·               In addition, through learning and social acculturation, they have acquired their own preferences for how they like to learn and the pace at which they learn. However, these preferences are not always useful in helping learners reach their learning goals.

·               Educators need to help students, examine their learning preferences and expand or modify them if necessary. Educators need to be sensitive to individual differences.

 

         13.    Learning and Diversity

·               Learning is most effective when differences in learners' linguistic, cultural and social backgrounds are taken into account.

·               Language, ethnicity, race, beliefs and socio-economic status all can influence learning.

·               When learners perceive that their individual differences in abilities, backgrounds, cultures, experiences are valued, respected and accommodated in learning tasks and contexts, then levels of motivation and achievement are enhanced.

 

          14.    Standards and Assessment

·               Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as well as learning progress are integral parts of the learning process.

·               Assessment provides important information to both the learner and teacher at all stages of the learning process. Effective learning takes place when learners feel challenged to work towards appropriately high goals.

·               Continuous assessment of the learner's understanding of the curricular material can provide valuable feedback to both learners and teachers about progress toward the learning goals.

·               Self-assessments of learning progress can also improve students' self-appraisal skills and enhance motivation and self-directed learning.

 

3.1.5 Laws of Learning

Edward Thorndike gave laws of learning based on his experiment. He categories these laws into primary laws and supplementary laws of learning.

These are discussed below

 

         1.      Primary Laws

Primary laws have three laws such as

         (i)      Law of Readiness Primary law of learning is the Law of Readiness or the Law of Action Tendency, which means that learning takes place, when an action tendency is aroused through preparatory adjustment or attitude.

Readiness means a preparation of action. If one is not prepared to learn, learning cannot be automatically instilled in him.

 

        (ii)     Law of Exercise The second law of learning is the Law of Exercise, which means that drill or practice helps in increasing efficiency and durability of learning. Learning to drive a motor-car, type-writing, singing or memorising a poem and music etc, need exercise and repetition of various movements and actions many times.

       (iii)    Law of Effect The third law is the Law of Effect. The educator must obey the tastes and interests of his pupils.' Greater the satisfaction stronger will be the motive to learn. This law was found acceptance in the theories of learning by Hull and Skinner.

·               Law of effect is considered the most important law for classroom teaching-learning process, e.g.

·               Teacher must create such an environment, so that pupils feel pleasure and satisfy with the teaching process.

·               Teacher should excite children for learning, so that they feel self-satisfaction and encouragement for learning.

·               Teacher should organise and present chapters or topics in such manner, so that the students' interest and aptitude must be balanced and they feel satisfaction with teaching.

 

         2.      Secondary Laws

Secondary Laws have 5 laws of learning such as. Besides these, there are three basic laws,

Thorndike also refer to five subordinate laws which further help to explain the learning process.

 

 These are as follow

        (i)      Law of Multiple-Response According to it, the organism varies or changes its response till an appropriate behaviour is hit upon. Without varying the responses, the solution might never be elicited. If the individual wants to solve a puzzle, he is to try in different ways rather than mechanically persisting in the same way.

        (ii)     The Law of Set or Attitude Learning is guided by a total set or attitude of the organism, which determines not only what the person will do but what will satisfy or annoy them.

       (iii)    Pre-Potency of Elements According to this law, the learner reacts selectively to the important or essential situation and neglects the other features or elements which may be irrelevant or non-essential.

The ability to deal with the essential or the relevant part of the situation, makes analytical and insightful learning possible.

        (iv)    Law of Response by Analogy According to this law, the individual makes use of old experiences or acquisitions while learning a new situation. There is a tendency to utilise common elements in the new situation as existed in a similar past situation.

         (v)     The Law of Associative Shifting According to this law, we may get an response, of which a learner is capable, associated with any other situation to which he is sensitive. Thorndike illustrated this by the act of teaching a cat to stand up at a command. A fish was dangled before the cat while he said 'stand up'. After a number trails by presenting the fish after uttering the command 'stand up he later ousted the fish and the overall command of ?standup' was found sufficient to evoke the response in the cat by standing up or her hind legs.

 

3.2 Theories of Learning Principles

 

·               A number of theories of learning principles have given by various psychologists.

Some of the most important theories are discussed below

 

3.2.1 Trial and Error Theory of Thorndike

The experimental study of animal learning by EL

Thorndike (1874-1949) in the United States and his theory on trial-and-error learning provided the impetus for Skinner's experiments on instrumental or operant conditioning. Thorndike's doctoral research on 'Animal  

Intelligence' in 1898 provided the psychological world the first miniature system of learning known as trial-and-error learning.

Trial and error is based on random activities to reach the goal. Thorndike's research on animals showed that learning is a matter of connecting responses to stimuli in a very mechanical way.

There is no involvement of consciousness, thinking, reasoning or understanding. The animal performs responses mechanically. The responses that bring reward are learned; the responses that do not bring reward are not learned. The animal does not show ability to understand, think and reason. The animal learns mechanically through trial and error.

Indeed many forms of human learning, particularly the learning of sensory-motor skills, are achieved through trial and error. Learning to walk, to swim or to ride a bicycle is based on trial and error. At the beginning, we make wrong movements and commit errors. As we go through a series of practice trials, errors are reduced and responses are mastered. The gradual reduction of errors over trials gives the name, trial and error form of learning.

 

Thorndike's Experiment on Cat

His classic experiment used a hungry cat as the subject, a piece of fish as the reward and a puzzle box as the instrument for studying trial and error learning.

In this typical experiment, a hungry cat was placed inside the puzzle box and a piece of fish was kept outside the box. The cat could not reach the fish unless it opened the door. In order to escape from the box, the cat had to perform a simple action as required by the experimenter.

·               The cat had to pull a loop or press a lever in order to open the door. Once the door was opened, the cat could escape and get the fish as a reward.

 

Important Educational Implications of Trial and Error Theory

In brief, implications of this theory are

·               According to this theory, the task can be started from the easier aspect towards its difficult side.

·               A small child learns some skills through trial and error method only such as sitting, standing, walking, running etc. In teaching also the child rectifies the writing after commiting mistakes.

·               In this theory, more emphasis has been laid on motivation.

·               Practice leads a man towards maturity. Practice is the main feature of trial and -error method.

·               Habits are formed as a result of repetition.

·               The effects of rewards and punishment also affect the learning of the child.

·               The theory may be found quite helpful in changing the behaviour of the deliquent children. The teacher should cure such children making use of this theory.

·               With the help of this theory, the teacher can control the negative emotions of the children such as anger, jealousy etc.

·               The teacher can improve their teaching methods making use of these theory. He must observe the effects of his teaching methods on the students and should not hesitate to make necessary changes in them, if required.

 

3.2.2 BF Skinner's Operant Theory

Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant conditioning. He introduced a new term into the

Law of Effect- Reinforcement. Behaviour which is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e. strengthened), behaviour which is not reinforced tends to die out or be extinguished (i.e. weakened). Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments using animals.

BF Skinner (1938) coined the term operant conditioning; it means roughly changing of behaviour by the use of reinforcement which is given after the desired response. Skinner identified three types of responses or operant that can follow behaviour.

  

       1.      Neutral Operants Responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a behaviour being repeated.

        2.      Reinforcers Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behaviour being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.

        3.      Punishers Response from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated. Punishment weakens behaviour.

 

Implications of the Theory of Operant Conditioning

Implications of the theory of operant conditioning are as follow

       1.      Conditioning Study Behaviour Teaching is the arrangement of contingencies of reinforcement which expedite learning, e.g. for self-learning of a student teacher should reinforce student behaviour through variety of incentives such as prize, medal, smile, praise, affectionate patting on the back or by giving higher marks.

 

         2.      Conditioning and Classroom Behaviour

Suitable behavioural contingencies, atmosphere of recognition, acceptance, affection and esteem, helps child in approaching teacher and the subject. If student is not serious in study, teacher make use of negative reinforcement like showing negligence, criticising student etc. but if student is serious in study, teacher make use of positive reinforcement like prize, medal, praise and smile.

 

       3.      Managing Problem Behaviour Two types of behaviour is seen in the classroom viz undesired behaviour and problematic behaviour. Operant conditioning is a behaviour therapy technique that shape students behaviour. For this teacher should admit positive contingencies like praise, encouragement etc for learning. One should not admit negative contingencies, e.g. punishment (student will run away from the dull and dreary classes escape stimulation).

 

        4.      Dealing with Anxieties through Conditioning

Through conditioning fear, anxieties, prejudices, attitudes, perceptual meaning develops. Example of anxiety signals on the road, siren blown during war time, child receiving painful injection from a doctor.

Anxiety is a generalised fear response. To break the habits of fear, desensitisation techniques should be used by a teacher. Initially, teacher should provide very weak form of conditioned stimulus. Gradually, the strength of stimulus should be increased.

 

      5.      Conditioning Group Behaviour Conditioning makes entire group learn and complete change behaviour is seen due to reinibrcement. It breaks undesired and unsocial behaviour too.

e.g. putting questions or telling lie to teachers will make teachers annoyed in such circumstances students learn to keep mum in the class. Asking questions, active participation in class discussion will make the teacher feel happy, interaction will increase and teaching learning processes becomes more effective.

 

        6.      Conditioning and Cognitive Processes

Reinforcement is given in different form for the progress of knowledge. When response is correct positive reinforcement is given.

Shaping Complex Behaviour Complex behaviour exists in form of a chain of small behaviour.

Control is required for such kind of behaviour. This extended form of learning is shaping technique. Smallest behaviour is controlled at initial stage, e.g. vocabulary in English. Teaching spelling is mainly a process of shaping complex' form of behaviour.

 

3.2.3 Pavlov's Classical Conditioning Theory

Pavlov's Classical Conditioning theory considers learning as habit formation and is based on the principle of association and substitution. It is simply stimulus-response type of learning where in place of a natural stimulus like food, water etc, the artificial stimulus like sound of a bell, sight of the light of a definite colour etc, can evoke a natural response, e.g.

·               Pavlov's Classical Conditioning, during the 1890s, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov was looking at salivation in dog in response to being fed, when he noticed that his dog would begin to salivate whenever he entered the room, even when he was not bringing him food.

·               In his experiment, Pavlov used a bell as his neutral stimulus, Whenever he gave food to his dog, he also rang a bell. After a number of repeats of this procedure, he tried the bell on its own.

·               A As you might expect, the bell on its own now caused an increase in salivation. So, the dog had learned an association between the bell and the food and a new behaviour had been learnt. This response was learned (or conditioned), by the do it is called a conditioned response. The neutral stimulus has become a conditioned stimulus.

·               Thus, when both artificial or neutral stimulus (ringing of the bell) and natural stimulus (food) are brought together, several times, the dog becomes habituated or conditioned to response to this situation. There becomes perfect association between the types of stimuli presented together.

·               As a result, after sometime natural stimulus can be substituted or replaced by an artificial stimulus and this artificial stimulus is able to evoke the natural response.

 

Educational Implications of Classical Conditioning Theory

Following are the some of the educational implications, of Pavlov's Classical Conditioning theory

·               Fear, love and hatred towards specific subjects are created through conditioning, e.g. a Maths teacher with his or her defective method of teaching and improper behaviour in the classroom may be disliked by learners. The learners develop hatred towards maths due to teacher's behaviour.

·               With the good method and kind treatment a teacher can bring desirable impacts upon the learners. The learners may like the boring subject because of teacher's role.

·               In teaching audio-visual aids is very vital. When teacher want to teach about spelling of a sparrow. He/She shows the picture of the sparrow with the spellings.

When teacher shows picture at the same time he she spells out the spellings, after a while only picture is shown and the learners spell the word sparrow.