Essays

"The Robe/lion of 1857 was not pre-planned, if was not engineered by any political party in India or any foreign power hostile to England. It had its origin in sepoy discontent and derived its strength  m from the widespread dissatisfaction among the civil population."                                                                                                       —Dr. S.N. Sen.  

As the years rolled by the political uneasiness in the country reached a crucial stage, when everyone was feeling irritation. In particular, the sweeping annexations and the summary application of the doctrine of lapse by Lord Dalhousie invited the resentment of both the Muslims and the Hindus. The attempt of Lord Dalhousie evicts the Mughal emperor from the Red Fort and the annexation of Oudh contrary an earlier agreement stunned the Muslim community. The refusal to grant pensions) Nana Saheb, the adopted son of the last peshwa, Baji Rao II roused the wrath of ll Hindus. This political dissatisfaction was aggravated by the desorbed Added to this, haughty behaviour of Covertly Jackson in Oudh exasperated nobility.

The spread of the British Raj and the increasing liberal tempo in England led to certain measures being passed by the British Raj which hurt the sentiments of the people. The motivation of the British Raj was beyond reproach but the affected panics attributed sinister designs to all these steps. William Bentinck's resumption of rein free lands made enemies, the big landlords. The Commission of Bombay, after enquiring into the title-deeds of the land confiscated about 20,000 acres of lands. The introduction of railways and telegraph were looked with suspicion, particularly the latter being called the accursed wire that strangled us as remarked by the mutineers.1 Added to this, the spread of English education, prohibition of sati and infanticide legalization of widow re-marriage and the activities of the missionaries were if resulted into a suspect in the eyes of the people.

 The third factor that caused a steep rise in the mounting tension was the increasing grievances of the Indian troops. As some of the regulations of the army hurt the social customs and religious sentiments of the people. Four mutinies had already occurred in 1844,1849, 1850 and 1852. And after with the arrival of Lord Canning, the General Service Enlistment Act worsened the situation. Recruits to the Bengal army just like those of Madras were expected to serve wherever required, particularly when the Bengal army was composed of many Brahmins. At this moment Enfield RiM with special cartridges was introduced which were said to be greased with animal ^B particularly with those of the cow and the pig. As the cartridge was to be bitten ends before being used, both Hindus and Muslims were alarmed. "On this inflame material the true story of the cartridges fell as a spark on a dry tinder."Mysterious  chupatties were sent from village to village during 1856. Then the storm broke our Mangal Pandey, a sepoy, on 29th March 1857 killed a European officer at Ban. The revolt primarily centered round (live regions: Delhi, Lucknow, Kanpur, Rohilkhand, Centra] India and Bundel khand. In May 1857, the sepals at Meerut revolted and marched on Delhi and soon occupied it. They installed Bahadur Shah 11 on the throne. This lead was quickly picked up by the sepals in the province of Agra although the city of Agra remained with the British. Delhi was preoccupied by British in September 1857. This reoccupation was primarily facilitated by the loyalty of the Sikhs and the energetic steps taken by John Lawrence. Bahadur Shah was tried and exiled in Rangoon where he died in 1862 and a British officer treacherously murdered his two sons and a grandson.

At Lucknow Sir Henry Lawrence lost his life and the residency was besieged by the mutineers. Although a relief force was sent to Lucknow and it was evacuated. It was preoccupied by Sir Colin Campbell in March 1858 and the mutiny of Oudh was filled.

In Kanpur the British people suffered much. The mutineers led by Nana Saheb murdered the British civilians and troops. Kanpur was occupied by Campbell in December 1857.

In Rohilkhand the revolt started in May 1857, the Nawab of Rampore remained loyal to (he British and Bareilly was reoccupied in December 1857.

Finally the mutiny in Central India and BundeIkhand was led by Rani Laxmibai assisted by Tantia Tope. With the capture of Gwalior in June 1858 and with the death of the Rani in the field the trouble came to an end. Incidentally there were rebellions in Bihar also in some parts of Rajputana and the Maratha territory.

The immediate consequence of the mutiny was the assumption of the Government of lndia by the British Crown. This assumption led to two consequences. First, it meant the end of the Mughal rule and with the disappearance of the Mughal emperor the Muslim community felt depressed. Besides, as the English suspected the mutiny to be a Muslim conspiracy, the Muslims became a suspect community in the eyes of the English. It was from this depressed state that Sir Sayed Ahmed helped the Muslim community by establishing the Upper India Muslim Association. The second consequence of it was the name of Queen Victoria became a myth as potent as that of Mt Company Bahadur but was more personal and gracious. Queen Victoria as the (press of India "supplied for the masses a mutualism to which the Indian mind was peculiaryly susceptible."

 Secondly, the mutiny caused a financial crisis of the East India Company. F Hence, with the transfer of authority from the Company to the Government of England, a number of experts were sent to India. These experts introduced annual budgets, income tax, revenue tariff a 10% on all imports and paper currency. Soon this was followed by granting permission to the Government of India to borrow money the money-markets for productive purposes. All these efforts ended the deficits Indian budgeting in 1864. Thus the financial history of modem India came in the Thirdly, before the mutiny Dalhousie described the Princes as 'obsolesce survivals of the past age', but the first viceroy. Canning, described theft' "breakwaters of the storm". It was the company's policy of annexation 11 triggered of the mutiny and the consequent civil unrest that followed it. Naturally fit the post-mutiny era the British Raj took all steps to make the sepals strategically weak and harmless. They also tried to conciliate the princes by recognizing the right of adoption and guaranteeing their existing territories. "Subordinate isolation transformed into subordinate partnership."A further offshoot of this policy wi the formal declaration of suzerainty of the Crown of England over the whole of India.

Fourthly, another immediate consequence of the mutiny was a general distils between the rulers and the ruled. The atrocities committed by both sides during mutiny were remembered for a long time. In order to keep away from the general! Of people, the British Raj in India deliberately encouraged the aristocratic section^ the community. The Royal titles Act of 1876 by which Queen Victoria was proclaim the Empress of India was explained by Lord Lytton as the beginning of a new by virtue of which the Crown of England should henceforth be identified with (| hopes, the aspirations, the sympathies and interests of the powerful native aristocrat This policy encouraged the autocracy and tyranny of the Indian princely rulers a also their alignment with the British rulers against their own people.

Fifthly, reorganization of the army was also an immediate consequence ofl mutiny. The proportion of British soldiers was increased and artillery was practice reserved for them. Various groups were so organized in the army to inhibit a sentiment of national unity that might grow. For that matter they wanted to is plateful sepals by forbidding them to read the Indian newspapers. The changes made in tin army also led to restrictions on the use of fire-arms by civilians.

Sixthly, the British officialdom also changed its attitude after the mutiny, officials of the British bureaucracy became less sympathetic to the people and became more aloof. With the transfer of authority to the Crown, all restraints on the British officials in India were removed resulting in the bureaucracy usurping the functions of the government of India. True. the bureaucracy was highly efficient and they also meant to do good to the people as they understood it but it was failure because th showed contempt for the educated Indians, rank ignorance of the real wants of the , people and were guided by the set ideals of subordinating the interests of India to those | of England. The general behaviour of the official community and thereby the British f Ra) in India, confirms the comment on the English character that they shut the stable door after the horse escapes. In the post-mutiny era the British Raj concentrated mostly on the past errors and therefore, failed to think of the future policy. This obsession with the past made the British Raj oblivious of the significance of the national movement and other reform movements, "the British Raj started respecting unduly the Indian tradition and discounted Indian regeneration on Western lines. Further, the British RaJ's honeymoon with the progressive changes in society (abolition of sati. Widow Remarriage Act, etc.) Gave place to the humdrum activities post-mutiny era like construction of a few dams improving roads. This general made the British RaJ in India so skeptical Thai they did not think of the future- this  altitude blurred their political vision of India because they failed to appreciate the demands of the educated classes. Further the demands of the educated classes could not be understood. "The British looked at the old leaders to lead in the "streaking process, believing that the rest of India would follow them. No such lead came and the British looked no further. They could not bring themselves to take seriously the new class which was dependent upon their own institutions the product of their own education. They were subordinates; it was thought, despised by their own leaders. For this political myopia heavy penalties were later to be exacted."

                Finally, the land of the Company's rule endangered the economy of India. India became a field of exploitation not for a single trading concern (the East India Company) but for the entire British people as well. Prior to the assumption of authority by the Crown, the activities of the Company u ere scrutinized by the home authorities, but once the British people became masters, this critical attitude was lost and the whole political power was utilized to further the interests of all the Englishmen came to India. India became in the post mutiny era a dumping ground for British manufacturers and an inexhaustible Held for investment of capital- A large number of Englishmen came to India for purpose of trading and earn more money.

Thus it may be said that as the use of force failed in 1857, the dynamic section of lndian community turned more and more toward peaceful means. "The last embers of the chaos and confusion bequeathed by the political disintegration of the 18^th century were finally extinguished. A new era began in Indian history."

Vocabulary

1. widespread—distributed over a considerable extent. 2. hostile—characterized by enmity or ill will. 3. Rebellion—organized opposition to authority; a conflict in which one flexion tries to wrest control from anolhcr-4. derived—cause to develop or evolve, esp. from a latent or potential -state. 5. crucial—of extreme Importance; vital to the resolution of a crisis. 6. lapse—a mistake resulting from inattention. 7. stunned—surprise greatly): knock someone's socks off. 8. aggravated—incited, especially deliberately, to anger. 9. demobbed—relieve from military service. 10. sinister—stemming from evil characterized sties or forces: wicked or dishonorable. 11. accursed—under a curse. 12. stranded—suffocate. 13. greased—lubricate with grease. 14. inflammable—possible to bum. 15 treacherously—in a disloyal and faithless manner. 16. exiled—expel from a country. 17. conspiracy—a secret agreement between two or more people to perform an unlawful act. 18. annexation—incorporation by annexation. 19. atrocities—the quality of being shockingly cruel and inhumane. 20. mutiny—open rebellion against constituted authority. 21. Skeptical - marked by or given to doubt. 22. myopia—eyesight abnormality resulting from the eye's faulty refractive ability. 23. dumping—selling goods abroad at a price below that charged in the domestic market . 24. extinguished—of a conditioned response; caused to die out because of the absence or withdrawal of reinforcement. 25. era—a period marked by distinctive character or reckoned from a fixed point or event, 26. humdrum—tediously repetitious or lacking in variety.